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About Google Book Search Google's mission is to organize the world's information and to make it universally accessible and useful. Google Book Search helps readers discover the world's books while helping authors and publishers reach new audiences. You can search through the full text of this book on the web at |http: //books .google .com/I The Branner Geological Library Si? fjp^ ii7& Jl y- , «^ C-' "^^Kl^^ U : *^-" •^ i{JE#wt/<— laui' RELBaUI^ DILUVIAN^; OBSERVATIONS ^^'"'^ ON THE ORGANIC REMAINS CONTAINED IN CAVES, FISSURES, AND DILUVIAL GRAVEL, AND ON OTHER GEOLOGICAL PHENOMENA, ATTESTING THE ACTION OF AN UNIVERSAL DELUGE. BY THE REV. WILLIAM BUCKLAND, B. D. F. R. S. F. L. S. MEMBEK OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON; OF THE IXPEEIAL SOCIETIES OF MINERALOGY AND NATURAL HISTORY AT PETERSBURG AND MOSCOW; OF THE NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF BONN, ON THE RHINE; AND OF THE NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY AT HALLE ; HONORARY MEMBER OF THE AMERICAN GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY ; CORRESPONDENT OF THE MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY OF FRANCE; FELLOW OF C. C. C. AND PROFESSOR OF MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD. SECOND EDITION. •• • - • - LONDON : JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE-STREET. MDCCCXXIV. 2 \ 0792 • « • • • • - • •• • • • • - - i •.; ••• ••• • • • • LONDON: PRIHTBD DY THOMAS DAVISON, WHITRPRIARS. TO THE HONOURABLE AND RIGHT REVEREND SHUTE HARRINGTON, L.L.D LORD BISHOP OF DURHAM, &c. Sec. My Lord, The investigation which has led me to the present work was b^un in obedience to your Lordship's immediate advice ; I m know not, therefore, to whom I can so fitly dedicate the results of an inquiry, which but for this timely encouragement I might never have undertaken. It has, already, produced conclusions, which throw new light on a period of much obscurity in the physical history of our globe; and, by affording the strongest evidence of an universal deluge, leads us to hope, that it will no longer be asserted, as it has been by high authorities, that geology supplies no proofs of an event in the reality of which the truth of the Mosaic records is so materially involved. IV DEDICATION. The warm interest your Lordship has been pleased to take in the progress of these later discoveries, which are now published to the world, demands this tribute of my grateful acknowledgment : and I have been long indebted to your Lordship, for the same indulgent notice of my endeavours to call the attention of the University to the subject of geology, and combine with those branches of study which are more strictly academical, the cul-^ tivation of this new and interesting science. I am happy, therefore, in being permitted to add these expressions of my own feelings to the public respect and veneration, which have accom- panied your Lordship through a long and eminently useful life ; a life distinguished no less by the enlightened encouragement of learning and the liberal arts, than by the faithful dischai^ of the higher and more important duties which belong to your exalted station. I have the honor to remain. My Lord, . Your much obliged, and most devoted servant, WILLIAM BUCKLAND. Carpus (JhrUti College, Oxford, May, 1823. CONTENTS. Care at Kirkdale Chronological inferences fircmi it Caves at Kirby Moordde Open fissuie in Duncomb Park Cave at Button, in the Mendip Hills on Derdham Down, near CXftur of the only siik bones of birds I have seen from Eirkdale are those of the^ulna, may have arisen from the position of the quill feathem^ on it, and the small * The teeth and bones of water rats have been found by M. Cuvier to occur abun- dantly in many of the osseous brecdas from the shores of the MediteEtaiiean and Adriatic. He has also in his collection a large mass from Sardinia, composed ezdusively of the bones and teeth of these animals, nearly as white as ivory, and slightly adhering togeAeP by delicate stalagmite ; but by what process these bones were collected together, and whether in the antediluvian period, or more recently, it is not possible to decide, without careful examination of the spots in which they are respectively found, unless they happen to be in the same mass with bones or teeth belonging to odier Mmnylff of extinct species. DISCOVEBJBD AT tTHimAT.T:, IN YORKSHIBE. 36 quantity of fleshy matter that exists on the outer extreikiity of the wmgs of birds ; the former a£K>rdiiig an obstacle, and the latter no tCTdptation to the hyasnas to devour them. Two of the bones here motioned (see Plate XL fig. 19 to 23), in size and form, and the position of the points at the base of the qmlls, exactly resemble the ulna of a raven ; a third (fig. 26, 27) approaches closely to the Spanish runt, which is one of the largest of the pigeon tribe ; a fourth bone (fig. 24, 25) is the right uka of a lark ; a fifth (fig. 28, 29) the eoraooid process of the right scapula of a small species of dude resem- bling the Anas sponsor, or summer duck ; and a sixth (Plate XIIL fig. 11, 12), resembles as closely as possible the humerus of a com- mon snipe*. With respect to the bear and tiger, the remains of which are extremely rare^ and of which the teeth that have been found (see Plate VI. fig. 1, 5, 6, 7)^ indicate a magnitude equal to the great Ursus spekeus of the caves of Germany, and of the largest Bengal tiger, it is more probable that the hyaenas found their dead carcasses, and dragged them to the den, than that they were ever joint t^iants of the same cavern. It is however obvious that they were aU con- temporaneous inhabitants of antediluvian Yorkshire. In the case of such minute and burrowing animals as the mouse and weasel, and perhaps the rabbit and fox, it is possible that some of them may have crept into the cave by undiscovered crevices, and there died since the stoppage of its mouth ; and if so, their * For my knowledge of these, and many other bones I have from Kirkdale, I am indebted to a carefiil examinalion and comparison of them made by Mr. Brooks, in his m6st valuable collection of osteological preparations. Mr. Clift also has kindly assisted me at the Royal College of Surgeons in furtherance of the same object. F 2 i f S6 ACCOUNT OP FOSSIL TEETH AND BONES bones would have been found lying on the surface of the mud before it was disturbed by digging : as no observations were made in season as to this pointy it must remain unsettled^ till the opening of another cave may give opportunity for more accurate investigation, 'rtiis uncertainty, however, applies not to any of the extinct species, or to the larger animals, whose habit it is not to burrow in the ground, nor even to those of the smaller ones, (e. g. the water rat,) fragments of whose bones and teeth are found imbedded in the antediluvian stalagmite, and cemented by it both to the exterior and internal cavities of bones belonging to the hyaenas and other extinct species, which, beyond all doubt, were lodged in the den before the period of the introduction of the mud. Should it turn out that since this period the cave has been accessible to foxes and weasels, it is possible that some of the birds may also have been introduced by them. The evidence of this, however, rests on a fact not yet carefully ascertained^ viz. whether the bones in question were buried, like those of the extinct animals, beneath the mud, or lay on its surface ; the state of one of the ravens' bones, containing stalagmite in its central cavity (see Plate XI. fig. 22, 23), seems to indicate high antiquity ; and the quarry man, who was the first to enter the cave, assured me, that he has never seen a single bone of any kind on the surface, nor without digging into the substance of the mud, with the exception of a very few such cases as that of the specimen I have described in the pos- session of Mr. Smith. As ruminating aniinals form the ordinary food of beasts of prey, it is not surprising that their remains should occur in such abundance in the cave (see Plate VIIL fig. 1 to 14) ; but it is not so obvious by V ^ DISCOVERED AT KIRKDALE, IN YORKSHIRE. 37 what means the bones and teeth of the elephant, rhinoceros, and hip^ popotamus, were conveyed thither (see Plate VII. fig. 1 to 6, and 8 to 10). On the one hand, the cave is in general of dimensions so contracted (often not exceeding three feet in diameter), that it is impossible that living animals of these species could have found an entrance, or the entire carcases of dead ones been floated into it ; moreover, had the bones been washed in, they would probably have been mixed with pebbles and rounded equably by friction, which they are not;: on the other hand, it is foreign to the habits of the hyaena to prey on the larger pachydermata, their yoimg perhaps excepted. No other solution of the difficulty presents itself to me, than that the remains in question are those of individuals that died a natural death ; for though an hyaena would neither have had strength to kill a living elephant or rhinoceros, or to drag home the entire carcase of a dead one, yet he could carry away, piecemeal, or acting conjointly with others, fragments of the most bulky animals that died in the course of nature, and thus introduce them to the inmost recesses of his den. Should it be asked why, amidst the remains of so many hundred animals, not a single skeleton of any kind has been foimd entire, we see an obvious answer, in the power and known habit of hyaenas to devour the bones of their prey ; and the gnawed fragments on the one hand, and album graecum on the other, afford double evidence of their having largely gratified this natural propensity: the exception of the teeth and numerous small bones of the lower joints and extre- mities, that remain unbroken, (as having been without marrow and too hard and solid to afford inducement for mastication,) is entirely I. *>- .% 38 ACCX)UNT OF FOSSIL TEETH AND BONES consistent with this solution*. And should it be further asked, why we do not find, at least, the entire skeleton of the one or more hyaenas that died last and left no survivors to devour them ; we find a suf- ficient reply to this question, in the circumstance of the probable destruction of the last individuals by the diluvian waters. On the * Since this paper was first published, I have had an opportunity of seeing a Cape hysena at Oxford, in the travelling collection of Mr. Wombwell, the keeper of which confirmed in every particular the evidence given to Dr. Wollaston by the keeper at Exeter 'Change. I was enabled also to observe the animal's mode of proceeding in the destruction of bones: ihe shin bone of an ox being presented to this hy8sna;*he began to bite off with his molar teeth large fragments fix)m its upper extremity, and swallowed them whole as fast as they were broken off. On his reaching the medullary cavity, the bone split into angular firagments, many of which he caught up greedily and swallowed entire : he went on cracking it till he had extracted all the marrow, licking out the lowest portion of it with his tongue : this done, he left untouched the lower condyle, which con- tains no marrow, and is very hard. The state and form of this residuary fi*agment are precisely like those of similar bones at Kirkdale ; the marks of teeth on it are very few^ as the bone usually gave off a splinter before the large conical teeth had forced a hole through it ; these few, however, entirely resemble the impressions we find on the bones at ELirkdale; the small splinters also in form and size, and manner of fracture^ are not distinguishable from the fossil ones. I preserve all the fragments and the gnawed portions of this bone for the sake of comparison by the side of those I have from the antediluvian den in Yorkshire : there is absolutely no difference between them, ex- cept in point of age. The animal left untouched the solid bones of the tarsus and carpus, and such parts of the cylindrical bones as we find untouched at Kirkdale, and devoured only the parts analogous to those which are there deficient The keeper pursuing this experiment to its final result, presented me the next morning with a large quantity of album grsecum, disposed in balls, that agree entirely in size, shape, and substance with those that were found in the den at Kirkdale. I gave the animal successively three shin bones of a sheep; he snapped them asunder in a moment, dividing each in two parts only, which he swallowed entire, without the smallest mastication. On the keeper puttin g a spar of wood, two inches in diameter, into his den, he cracked it in pieces as if it had been touchwood, and in a minute the whole was reduced to a mass of splinters. The power of his jaws far exceeded any animal force of the kind I ever saw exerted, and reminded me of nothing so much as of a miner's crushing mill, or the scissars with which they cut off bars of iron and copper in the metal founderies. •cv DISOOVEE OVERED AT KIRKDALE, IN YORKSHIRE. 39 rise of these, had there been any hysenas in the den, they would have mshed out, and fled for safety to the hills ; and if absent, they could by no possibility have returned to it from the higher lev^: that they were extirpated by this catastrophe is obvious, from the discovery of their bones in the diluvial gravel both of England and Germany. The same circumstance will also explain the reason why there are no heaps of b(»ies found on the outside Of£ the Eirkdale cave, as described by Eusbequius on the outside of the hyaenas' dens in Anatolia ; for every thing that lay without, on the antediluvian sur&c^ must have been swept far away, and scattered by the violence of the diluvian waters ; and there is no reason for bdieving that hysenas, or any other animals whatever, have occupied the den subsequently to that catastrophe*. Although the evidence to prove the cave to have been inhabited as a den by successive generations of hyaenas appears thus direct, it may be as well to consider what other hypotheses can be suggested, to explain the collection of bones assembled in it. 1st It may be said, that the various animals had entered the cave spontaneously to die, or had fled into it as a refuge from some general convulsion : but the diameter of the cave, as has been mentioned before, compared with the bulk of the elephant and rhinoceros^ renders this solution impossible as to the larger animals ; and with * It has been suggested further, that there is no proof that this individtud cave was actually occupied at the precise point of time at which the waters began to rise, although it certainly had been so during several generations not bug preceding. It may have been abandoned a short time prior to it, and at that moment have been untenanted ; &a modem hunters do not always find their game exactly on the same spo^ nor is there any Uiing to prevent hyienas as well as other wild animals from occasionally chan^ng their qowteifi. Quarter^ Reviev, Oct. ISXt, p. 468. If. •<•■ 40 ACCOUNT OF FOSSIL TEETH AND BONES respect to the smaller, we can imagine no circumstances that would collect together, spontaneously, animals of such disriniilar habits as hyasnas, tigers, bears, wolves, foxes, horses, oxen, deer, rabbits, water-* rats, mice, weasels, and birds. 2d. It may be suggested, that they were drifted in by the waters of a flood: if so, either the carcases floated in entire; or the bones alone were drifted in after separation from the flesh : in the first of these cases, the larger carcases, as we have already stated, could not have entered at all ; and of the smaller ones, the cave could not have contained a sufficient number to supply one-twentieth part of the teeth and bones ; moreover, the bones would not have been broken to pieces, nor in difierent stages of decay. And had they been washed in by a succession of floods, we should have had a succession of beds of sediment and stalactite, and the cave would have been filled up by the second or third repetition of such an operation as that which in- troduced the single stratum of mud, which alone occurs in it. On the other hypothesis, that they were drift;ed in after separation from the flesh, they would have been mixed with gravel, and at least slightly rolled on their passage; and it would still remain to be shown by what means they were split and broken to pieces, and the dispro- portion created which exists between the numbers of the teeth and bones. They could not have fallen in through the fissures, for these are closed upwards in the substance of the rock, and do not reach to the surface. The 3rd, and only remaining hypothesis that occurs to me is, that they were dragged in for food by the hyaenas, who caught their prey in the immediate vicinity of their den ; and as they could not have dragged it home from any very great distances^ it follows, that the DISCOVEBED AT KTRKDALE, IN YOBKSHIBE. 41 animals they fed on^ all lived aod died not far from the spot where the remains are fomid. The aocmnulation of these bones^ then, appears to have been a long process, going on during a succession of years, whilst all the animals in question were natives of this country. The general dispermon of bones of the same animals through the diluvian gravel of high latitudes, over great part of the northern hemisphere, shows that the period in which they inhabited these regions was that imme- diately preceding the formation of this gravel, and that they perished by the same waters which produced it. M. Cuvier has moreover ascertained that the fossil elephant, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, and hyaena, belong to species now unknown ; and as there is no evidence that they have at any time, subsequent to the formation of the diluvium, existed in these regions, we may conclude that the period, at which the bones of these extinct species were introduced into the cave at Eirkdale, was antediluvian. Had these species ever re- established themselves in the northern portions of the world since the deluge, it is probable their remains would have been found, like those of the ox, horse, deer, hog, &c. preserved in the postdiluvian accumulations of gravel, sand, silt, mud, and peat, which are referable to causes still in operation, and which, by careful examination of their relations to the adjacent country, can be readily distinguished from those which are of diluvian origin. The teeth and fragments of bones above described seem to have lain a long time scattered irregularly over the bottom of the den, and r to have been continually accumulating until the introduction of the sediment in which they are now imbedded, and to the protection of which they owe that high state of preservation they jxMssess. Those 4A ACOOUMT OB POSBIL THBTH AMD VWX» that lay long tmoovsred at the bottom of thed^ have UMiefgcmd a decay proportionate to the time of their esposilzei otibersi that hai/^ kin cmly a fih^rt time before die introduetion of the diluvian mud, hate been preserved by it ahnost from evra incdpiient deoompositioau Thus the phenomena of this cave seem refi»able to a period imr mediately aoitecedent to the last inundation of the earth, and in which the fix)rld was inhabited by land animals, almost all beajong a geaeriQ and many a i^edfic resemblance to those which now exist I butso com- pletely has the violence of that tremendous convulsion destroyed and remodelled the form of the antediluvian sur&ce^ that it is only in eavons rtion exposed to the sun was melting and sending much water into the sea. An undoubted proof of this ice being primitive {u£. not formed by any causes now in action), was afforded by the great number of bones and teeth of mammoths which make their appearance when it is melted. The soil of these DISCOVERED AT KIEKDALB, IN YORKSHIRE. 47 Between tibiese two conflicting opinions we are compelled to make our dimce : there seems to be no third or intermediate state with which both may be compatible. It is not, however, to my present porpofie to discuss the difficulties that will occur on both sides, till the further progress of geological science shall have afforded us more ample information as to the structure of our globe^ and have supplied those data, without which all opinions that can be advanced on the subject must be premature, and amount to no more than plausible ccmjeeture. At present I am concerned only to establish two im- portant facts, 1st, that there has been a recent and general inundation of the globe; and, £d, that the animals whose remains are found interned in the wreck of that inundation were natives of high north latitudes, and not drifted to their present place from equatorial regions by the waters that caused their destruction. One things however, is nearly certain, viz. that if any change of climate has taken place, it took place suddenly; for how otherwise could the elephant's c^r- cas^ found entire in ice at the mouth of the Lena, have been pre- served from putrefaction till it was frozen up with the waters of the then existing ocean ? Nor is it less probable that this supposed change was contemporaneous with, and produced by, the same cause which brought on the inundation. What this cause was, whether a diaii^ in the inclination in the earth's axis, or the near appi!oach of a comet, or any other cause or combination of causes purely a^trono* mountains, which, to a certdn heighti are covered with an abundant herbage, is only lialf a foot diick ; it is composed of a mixture of clay, earth, sand, and mould; the ice melts gxadnally beneath it, the carpet fidls downward3 and continues to thrive ; the latitude iB66PW3& N.*"— G^6erf s Annalen, 1821, quoted in the Journal of Science and flie Arts, No. S7, page 8S6. 48 CHRONOLOGICAL INFERENCES FROM mical, is a question the discusidoii of which is foreign to the object of the present memoir. Having thus far described the principal facts I observed in the interior of the den at Kirkdale, and pointed out the most important conclusions that seem to arise from them, I proceed to consider the^ chronological inferences that may be derived from the state of the bones, and of the mud and stalagmite that accompany them^ and to extract the following detail of events that have been going on suc- cessively within this curious cave. 1st. There appears to have been a period (and if we may form an estimate from the small quantity of stalagmite now found on the actual floor of the cave, a very short one,) during which this aperture in the rock existed in its present state, but was not tenanted by the hysenas. The removal of the mud, which now entirely covers the floor, would be necessary to ascertain the exact quantity of stalagmite referable to this period ; but it cannot be very great, and can only be expected to exist where there is much stalactite also upon the roof and sides. The 2d period was that during which the cave was inhabited by the hysenas, and the stalactite and stalagmite were still forming. The constant passage of the hyaenas in so low a cave would much interrupt this deposition ; as they would strike ofl^ the former from the roof and sides by their constant ingress and egress ; and accord- ingly in some specimens of the breccia, we find mixed with the bones fragments of stalactite, that seem to have been thus knocked ofl^ from the roof and sides of the cave, whilst it was inhabited by hyaenas THE STATE OF THE CAVE AT KIRKDALE. 49 before the introduction of the mud. I have one example of a hollow stalactitic tube that lay in an horizontal position in the midst of, and parallel to some splinters of large bones, and the unbroken ulna of a rat : all these are united by stalagmite ; and it is impossible that this stalactitic pipe could have been formed in any other than a vertical position, hanging from the roof or sides. In other specimens of the breccia, there are spUt fragments of the teeth of deer and hyasna; and in almost every portion I have seen, either of this breccia or of the antediluvian stalagmite, there are teeth of the water rat. Mr. Gibson has presented to the Sritish Museum a mass exceeding a foot in diameter, composed of fragments of many large bones, mixed with some teeth of the hyasna, ox, and several other animals, and also of rats, all adhering firmly together in a matrix of stalagmite. During the formation of the stalagmitic matter, no mud appears to have been introduced ; and had there been any in the cave at the time whilst the osseous breccia was forming, it would either have excluded all access of the stalagmite to the bones, or have been mixed and entangled with it, forming a spongy mass, as it does at the root of the staglamites that Ue on its surface. The universal cover of mud pre- vented me from ascertaining whether the bottom of the cave is any where polished (like the tiger's den before alluded to), in those parts which must have been the constant gangway of the hysenas. The 3d period is that at which the mud was introduced and the animals extirpated, viz. the period of the deluge. I have already stated that the animal remains are found principally in the lower regions of this sediment of mud, which appears to have been intro- 4uced in a fluid state, so as to envelope the bony fragments then 50 CHRONOLOGICAL INFERENCES FROM lying on the bottom of the cave : and the power of water to introduce such sediments is shown by the state of Wokey Hole, and similar caverns in the Mendip Hills, and Derbyshire, which are subject to be filled with water occasionally by heavy land floods ; the etkct of these floods being to leave on the floor a sediment of mud simUar to that which covers the bones and osseous breccia in the cave of Kirk- dale. I have also mentioned that there is no alternation of this mud with beds of bone or of stalagmite, such as would have occurred had it been produced by land floods often repeated ; once, and once only, it appears to have been introduced ; and we may consider its vehicle . to have been the turbid waters of the same inundation that produced universally the diluvial gravel and loam on the surfece without : these would enter and fill the cave, and there becoming quiescent, would deposit the mud suspended in them (as we see daily silt and warp deposited in quiet spots by waters of muddy rivers) along the whole bottom of the den, where it has remained undisturbed ever since. We cannot refer this mud to a land flood, or succession of land floods, partly for the reasons before stated, and partly fi-om the general dryness of the cave; had it been liable to be filled with muddy water, it would have been so at the time I visited it in December, 18S1, at the end of one of the most rainy seasons ever remembered; but even then there were not the slightest symptoms of any such occurrence, and a few scanty droppings from the roof were the only traces of water entering the area of the cave. The 4th period is that during which the stalagmite was deposited which invests the upper surface of the mud. The quantity of this stalagmite appears to be much greater than that formed in the two THE STATE OP THE CAVE AT KIRKDALE. 51 periods, during and before which, the cave was tenanted by hya&nas. In the whole of this 4th period no creature appears to have entered the cave, with the exception possibly of mice, rats *, weasels, rabbits, and foxes, until it was opened last summer ; and no other process of any kind appears to have been going on in it except the formation of stalactitic and stalagmitic infiltrations : the stratum of diluvial sedi- ment marks the point of time at which the latter state of things began and the former ceased. As there is no mud at all on the top or sides of the cave, we have no mark to distinguish the relative quantities of stalactite formed on those parts during the periods we have been speaking of: should it however contain in any part a firagment of bone or tooth of any of the extinct animals, it will be probable that this part was antediluvial. A farther argument jnay be drawn fix)m the limited quantity of postdiluvian stalactite^ as well as firom the undecayed condition of the bones, to show that the time elapsed since the introduction of the diluvial mud has not been one of excessive length, nor at all exceeding that which M. Cuvier, after comparing the traditions of a deluge that prevail among all nations with natural phenomena, infers to have elapsed since that great and universal inundation which has overwhelmed the earth, at a period which, he says, he is of opinion with De Luc and Dolomieu, cannot have ex- ceeded five or six thousand years ago. ^ Mr. Salmond has a portion of the upper stalagmite, with the entire skeleton of a rati embedded between two of the upper laminee of the stalagmitic crust Thb animal must have entered the cave, and died there, not long ago. H 2 54 OPEN FISSURE IN DUNCOMBE PARK, mentality of the hysenas^ and not of the diluvial waters, that the animal remains were collected in such quantities in the adjacent den at Kirkdale. At about a mile east of Kirby Moorside, at a spot called the Sack of the Parks, there are other quarries on both sides of a comb that descends rapidly into the valley of the Dove, in the face of which there occur several small caverns and vertical fissures : these fissures vary fix>m one to six feet in breadth, and rise fix>m the bottom of the quarry to the surface of the land, and are entirely filled with diluvial loam, of the same kind as that in the caves both here and at Kirkdale, and the Manor Vale. It was in the upper part of one of the. fissures that several human skeletons were found and taken out in the year 1786, but the spot on which they occurred has been destroyed in con- tinuing the workings of the quarry : they were probably bodies that had been interred here after a battle. OPEN FISSURE IN DUNCOMBE PARK. The newly discovered fissure in Buncombe Park dijBTers fix>m those we have been last describing in the circumstance of its being of post- diluvian origin ; it contains no diluvial sediment and no pebbles, and has within it the remains of animals of existing species only, and these in a much more recent and more perfect state of preservation than the bones at Kirkdale. It is a great irregular crack or chasm, in the solid limestone rock, which forms a steep and lofty cliff on the right side of the valley of the Bye, being in that most beautiful valley of denudation which descends firom Rivaulx Abbey through Dunoombe CONTAINING POSTDILUVIAL BONES. 55 Park to the town of Helmsley, and on the left bank of which are the magnificent terraces of Rivaulx Abbey, and of the gardens at Dun- combe Park. The crack has probably been formed by a subsidence of part of the chff towards the valley, and terminates upwards near its edge, m a small aperture, about twenty feet long and three or four feet broad, which is almost concealed and overgrown with bushes, and which being nearly at right angles to the edge of the cli£^ lies like a pitfall across the path of animals that pass that way. It descends obliquely downwards, and presents several ledges or landing places and irregular lateral chambers, the floors of which are strewed over with loose angular fragments of limestone^ fallen firom the sides and rooi^ and with dislocated skeletons of animals that have from time to time fallen in &om above and perished. One of Mr. Buncombe's park-keepers had been for many years aware of the existence of bones in this chasm, but had never mentioned it till my second visit to Duncombe Park, when we examined it, descending by means of a rope, and found it to contain the skeletons of dogs, sheep, deer, goats, and hogs, lodged at various depths on the landing places I have just mentioned : the bones lay loose and naked on the actual spots on which the animals had died, and to which they had probably &llen when passing carelessly along the surface of the Park above ; they were neither broken, nor buried in loam, nor incrusted with stalag-- mite^ as at Kirkdale, but amply stripped of their flesh ; they are not adherent to the tongue when fiw^ured, but retain much more animal matter, and are in all respects more fi'esh and recent, than those which occur at Kirkdale entombed beneath the loam. In a geological point of view^ the occurrence of these bones, under the circumstances above described, is important, as illustrating the 56 OTHER CAVES IN ENGLAND- manner in which the bones of antediluvian animals may have been accumulated by falling into similar fissures, which are now filled up with diluvial mud and pebbles ; for if fissures existed (as th^ im- doubtedly did) on the antediluvian face of the earth in much greater abundance than since that grand aqueous revolution, which has entirely filled up so many of them with its detritus, there is no reason why the then existing animals should not have fallen into them and perished, as modem animals do in the comparatively few cavities that remain still open in our limestone districts : and when we con- sider that it is the habit of graminivorous animals to be constantly traversing the surface of the ground in every direction in pursuit of food, it is obvious that they are subject in a greater degree than those which are carnivorous to the perpetual danger of falling into any fissure or imperfectly closed chasm that may lie in their way ; and in this circumstance we see an explanation of the comparatively rare occurrence of the remains of beasts of prey in the osseous breccia of the antediluvian fissures, although they also perished in them, occa- sionally as the dogs do at this day in the open fissure at Duncombe ParL Many of the arguments arising from the detail of facts we have been describing in Yorkshire are appUcable to the illustration of analogous phenomena, where the evidence of their history is less com- plete. In our own country there are seven other instances of bones similarly deposited in caverns, the origin of some of which, though not before satisfactorily made out, becomes evident as a corollary fi-om the proofs afforded by the cave at Kirkdale ; these are in the counties of Somerset, Derby, Devon, and Glamorgan. CAVE WITH BONES, IN SOMERSET. 67 L— CAVE OF HUTTON, IN THE MENDIP HILLS. The first I shall mention is that of teeth and bones of elephants and other antediluvian animals discovered in the Mendip Hills in cavities of mountain limestone, which were lined, and nearly filled with ochreous day. These are preserved in the collection of the Rev. Mr. Catcott, in the City Library at Sristol. The following ac- count of them is extracted by my fiiend the Rev. W. D. Conybeare, &om Mr. Catcott's MS. notes ; he has added also a few explanatory observations. " The ochre pits were worked about the middle of the last century, near the summit of the Mendip Hills, on the S. of the village of Hutton, near Banwell, at an elevation of from three hundred to four hundred feet above the level of the sea : they are now abandoned *. ^ The ochre was pursued through fissures in the mountain lime* stone, occasionally expanding into larger cavernous chambers, their range being in a steep descent, and almost perpendicular. Thus, in opening the pits, the workmen, after removing eighteen inches of vegetable mould, and four feet of rubbly ochre, came to a fissure in the limestone rock, about eighteen inches broad, and four feet long. This was filled with good ochre, but as yet no bones were discovered : * I shall presendy mention an analogous case of the occurrence of ochre in a similar series of caverns in Derbyshire, near Wirksworth, and in some caves and fissures, filled with a similar accumulation of diluvial matter, on the continent, at Theux, near Spa. In the latter case it is accompanied with a large admixture of pebbles, but no bones. 68 CAVE OF BUTTON IN MENDIP, it continued to the depth of eight yards, and then opened into a cavern about twenty feet square, and four high ; the floor of this cave consisted of good ochre, strewed on the surface of which were mul- titudes of white bones, which were also found dispersed through the interior of the ochreous mass. In the centre of this chamber, a large stalactite depended from the roof; and beneath, a similar mass rose from the floor, almost touching it : in one of the side walls was an opening about three feet square, which conducted through a passage eighteen yards in length, to a second cavern, ten yards in length, and five in breadth ; both the passage and cavern being fiUed with ochre and bones. Another passage, about six feet square, branched ofi^ laterally from this chamber about four yards below its entrance ; this continued nearly on the same level for eighteen yards ; it was filled with rubbly ochre, fragments of limestone rounded by attrition, and lead ore confusedly mixed together ; many large bones occurring in the mass ; among which four magnificent teeth of an elephant (the whole number belonging to a single skull) were found. Another shaft was sunk from the surface perpendicularly into this branch, and ap- pears to have followed the course of a fissure, since it is said that all the way nothing appeared but rubble, large stones, ochre, and bones : in the second chamber, immediately beyond the entrance of the branch just described, there appeared a large deep opening, tending per- pendicularly downwards, filled with the same congeries of rubble, ochre, bones, &c. ; this was cleared to the depth of five yards ; this point, being the deepest part of the workings, was estimated at about thirty-six yards beneath the surface of the hill : a few yards to tlie CONTAINING LARGE BONES. 59 west of this another similar hole occurred, in which was fbund a large head, which we shall have occasion presently to notice." The bones from this cavern, preserved in Mr. Catcott's cabinet in the Bristol library, are the teeth and fragments of some bones of the elephant ; and similar remains of horses, oxen, and two species of stag, besides the skeleton, nearly complete^ of ,a fox, and the metacarpal bone of a very large species of bear, nearly five inches in length. There are also molar teeth of the hog, and a large tusk of the upper jaw; (see Plate XL fig. 80, 81, 82, 83.) This tusk probably be- longed to the head mentioned in the MS. as having been found in the pit above described, and of which the following particulars are spe^ dfied : — ^^ The head was stated by the workmen to have been about three or four feet long, fourteen inches broad at the top, or head part, and three inches at the snout. It had all the teeth perfect, and four tusks, the larger tusks about fovir inches long out of the head, and the lesser about three inches ♦." The tusk now preserved is about three inches long, its enamel is fine, it is longitudinally striated, and on one side of the apex truncated and worn flat by use. Some farther details of the bones found in the cave at Hutton are given as a note in Mr. Catcott's Treatise on the Deluge (page 861, first edition), in which he specifies six molar teeth of the elephant, one of them lying in the jaw, part of a tusk, part of a head, four thigh bones, three ribs, with a multitude of lesser bones, belonging probably to the same animal. " Besides these,'' he adds, " we picked up part * The head here described is evidently that of a hog ; the account of its length being exaggerated by the workmen, from whose report alone Mr. Catcott gives the mea^ suxes of it. The head itself was lost or destroyed before he had seen it i2 60 CAVE NEAR CLIFTON. of a large deer's horn very flat, and the slough of a horn (or the spongy porous substance that occupies the inside of the horns of oxen), of an extraordinary size, together with a great variety of teeth and small bones belonging to different species of land animals. The bones and teeth were extremely well preserved, all retaining their native whiteness, and, as they projected from the sides and top of the cavity, exhibited an appearance not unlike the inside of a charnel-house/' It appears most probable, from the description given of these bones and horns, that they were not dragged in by beasts of prey, but either drifted in by the diluvian waters, or derived from animals that had fidlen in before the introduction of the ochreous loam ; the loam itself and pebbles are clearly of diluvial origin. On the summit of Sandford Hill, on the east of Hutton, bones of the elephant were also, according to Mr. Catcott's MSS., discovered four fathoms deep among loose rubble. a.— CAVE ON DERDHAM DOWN, NEAR CLIFTON. A second case of fossil fragments of bone has been communicated to me by Mr. J. S. Miller, ofSristol, as discoveredby Mr. Benton,in a fissure of mountain limestone, near Clifton, by the turnpike-gate on Derdham Down. The fissure was two feet broad, and contained fragments of stone and stalagmite. The bones lie beneath this breccia, and are not rolled, but have evidently been fractured by violence : they are partially incrusted with stalactitic matter, and the broken surfeces have also an external coating of thin ochreous stalactite, showing the fracture to have been ancient. One specimen, the property of Mr. Miller, displays the curious circumstance of a fossil joint of the horse : it is the tarsus joint, CAVES IN DERBYSHIRE. 61 in which the astragalus retains its natural position between the tibia and OS calcis ; these are held together by a stalagmitic cement^ and were probably left in this position by some beast of prey that had gnawed off the deficient portions of the tibia and os calcis. 3.— CAVE AT BALLEYE, NEAR WIRKSWORTH. A third case is that of some bones and molar teeth of the elephant, found in another cavity of mountain limestone at Balleye, near Wirks- worth, in Derbyshire, in the year 1663 ; one of these teeth is now in the collection of Mr. White Watson, of Bakewell. There is, I believe, no other account of the circumstances under which these remains were found than the subjoined MS. in the possession of Mr. Wat- son, by a miner, named George Mower ♦. 4.— DREAM CAVE, NEAR WIRKSWORTH. A fourth example has just occurred in the same neighbourhood, in a lead mine called the Dream, in the hamlet of Callow, about one mile W. of Wirksworth, towards Hopton, on the property of Philip Gell, Esq., whose attention has been judiciously directed to the sub- ject, and by whose exertions nearly the entire skeleton of a rhinoceros has been extracted, together with some considerable remains of the horse, ox, and deer. On being informed of this discovery, through the kindness of my friend the Eev. D. Stacy, I set off immediately for Derbyshire, for the purpose of examining all its circumstances, and found them to be nearly as follows. In the month of December, ^ In sinking for lead at Bawlee, within two miles of Wirksworth, A. D. 1663, they came to an open place as large as a church, and found a skeleton reclining against the aide, so large that his brain-pan would have held two strike of com, and so big that they could not get it up without breaking it. My grandfather having a share in the said mine, they sent him a tooth, weighing four pounds three ounces. — Geo. Mower. 62 CAVE NEAR WIRKSWORTH, 1822, some miners engaged in pursuing a lead vein had sunk a shaft about sixty feet through solid mountain limestone (see Plate XX. A. B. H.), when they suddenly penetrated a large cavern e, filled entirely to the roof with a confused mass of argillaceous earth and fragments of stone, through which they attempted to continue their shaft perpendicularly downwards to the vein below; in this operation they were interrupted by the earth and firagments be* ginning to move and fall in upon them continually firom the sides^ until the roof of a large cavern became apparent, in consequence of the subsidence and removal of the matter with which it had been filled. It was nearly in the centre of this subsiding mass, and at the height of many feet above the actual floor of the cave, that the work- men discovered the bones f g, which I am about to describe, and of which those belonging to the rhinoceros g lay very near each other, and probably formed an entire skeleton before they were disturbed by the agitation and sinking of the materials e, in which they were imbedded. The following parts of a rhinoceros, all apparently firom the same individual, have been collected ; viz. the head, its central part being much broken, ten molar teeth, one entire side of the under jaw, and a large fi*agment of the other side; the atlas entire and fitting the head, two cervical vertebrae, several dorsal and two caudal ditto, with numerous firagments of ribs ; the sacrum and several parts of the pelvis, the humerus, ulna, and radius of both fore legs, the femur and tibia of both the hind legs, both patellae, and several pair of corresponding bones from the right and left feet, and the joints of the tarsus and carpus. All these are in a state of high preservation, and fi*om a nearly full grown animal, and being CONTAINING AN ENTIRE RHINOCEROS. 63 found so close together, are without doubt portions dT a skeleton which lay entire in the middle of the cave before the materials that had filled it began to subside. There were no supernumerary bones, to indicate the presence of a second rhinoceros ; but in the same cave were found some teeth and bones of a horse, and many entire bones from the legs of a very large ox, all apparently from one individual ; also many bones of deer from at least four individuals, and fragments of horns, none so large as those of red deer, and some of them palmated. (See Plate XXII. fig. 3, 4.) None of these bones have marks of partial decay on one surface only, as at Kirkdale and Plymouth ; and from this circumstance we may infer that they were derived from animals that perished by the waters that introduced them to the cave : they are of a yellowish brown colour, similar to those from Eirkdale. AU these valuable specimens have, by the munificence of Mr. GreD, been deposited in the Oxford Museum '*^. For some time after the cave was penetrated there was no apparent commimication between its interior and the surface ; but as the loose materials that at first filled it subsided into and were taken out by the shaft, a sinking appeared in the field above at I., and a further mass of the same kind, viz. argillaceous earth and fragments of limestone, mixed with a few rolled pebbles of quartz, continued to fall down- wards into it (like the contents of a lime-kiln, sinking towards the lower aperture by which the lime is extracted), until a large open chasm d, more than six feet broad, and fifty feet deep, was left en- * Mr. Gell has also in his possession the horn of a very large urus, that was found at a considerable depth in digging away the diluvium near the west mouth of the tunnel of the Cromford Canal, at Butterley, about thirty years ago. 64 CAVE CONTAINING RHINOCEROS. tirely void, and seen to form a direct communication from the side of the cave to the surface of the field above. Till undermined in this manner, the fissure d had been entirely filled, and the surface afforded not the slightest indication of its existence ; at present it is restored to the same state of an open chasm in which it pi'obably was hetme the access of the diluvian waters, that appear to have swept into it the mud and rocky fragments which filled both it and the cave below ; and on examining its sides, I found the projecting parts of them rubbed and scratched by the descent of these heavy bodies as they dropped in from above. From the situation of the rhinoceros' bones in the middle of this drifted mass, and in the centre of the cave, added to the juxta- position oi^ so many of the component parts of one entire skeleton, jvhich are neither rolled, or gnawed, or broken, except by the move* m^it they have recently undergone, and the pickaxes of the miners, it seems probable that they are the remains of a carcase that was drifted in entire at the same time with the diluvial detritus, in the midst of which they were found imbedded : had they been washed in singly, they would have been slightly rolled and scattered irregularly, and we should probably have found parts of more than a single individual ; « and had they been derived from an animal that fell into the fissure, and perished before the introduction of the diluvium, they would not have been suspended, as they were, all together nearly in the middle of it, but would have lain either on the actual floor of the cave beneath the loam and pebbles, or have been scattered and drifted irregularly to different and distant parts of its lowest recesses. I could discover no stalagmite, and but few traces of stalactite in any part of this cavern, or of the fissure immediately connected with it CAVE CONTAINING OCHRE. 65 In the same field with the Dream Mine» and on the upper edge of a steep dediyity, is a small crag that overhangs the subjacent valley^ , and has in its face an aperture called the Fox Holes, by which we enter an extensive suite of connected chambers and vaultings of irre- gular size and shape, perforating the rock in various directions, arid at various elevations. In all of these the floor is covered to the depth of many feet, whilst some of the smaller ones are entirely filled with a mass of clay and ochreous loam, which in many parts is suf- ficiently pure to have been extracted for sale as a coarse pigment, and to have caused much of the diluvial sediment within these chambers to have been dug over in search of it, as was done in the cavernous fissure of Hutton in the Mendips, just described as having contained ^ the bones of an elephant and other animals imbedded in ochre. In the cave of Fox Holes, now before us, no bones have been discovered, nor are there any traces of pebbles or angular firagments of stone accept near the mouth. The quantity of stalactite and stalagmite also is small : and this little occurs chiefly near the entrance, where the roof is clustered with tufts of beautiful lac lunce. The position of the cave on the edge of a high cli£^ and &r above the possible influence of any floods firom the nearest brooks or rivulets, obliges us to refer the enormous deposit it contains of ochreous mud to no other than diluvial origin ; and Mr. Gell informs me, that in all the caves and in the greater number of the fissures which he has for many years been in the habit of firequently exploring with the miners in this low peak district of Derbyshire, he has constantly ob- served a deposit of mud and stony fi*agments similar to that Which I K 66 FISSUKES NEAR WiaXSWORTH. examined with him in tihe Dream Ga^^em and the Fox Holes, and that almost all these apertures oecur in eloTated situations^ where not a stream or rivulet exists at the present time, to the flood waters d^ which it would be possible to ides their introduction. The absence of pebbles and stwhich they were introduced. > j:_ It remains only to consider what this time and what the dreom- stances were. I have abeady stated, that there is no evidence like that at Eirkdale, to show the animal remains atOreston to hare been collected by the hyaenas ; no disproportion in the number of the teeth to that of the bones ; no destruction of the condyles and softer p^rts, and abundance in excess of fragments of the harder portion ; no splinters of the marrow bones ; no friction or polish on the convex surfaces only of the curved bones ; no marks of large teeth ; no album grsBcum ; and no dispersion of bones along the horizontal sur&ce of a habitable den : but, on the contrary, a deep hole nearly perpen- dicular, and bones quite perfect, lodged in irregular heaps in the lowest pits, and in cavities along the lateral enlarg^nents of this hole^ and mixed with mud, pebbles, and fragments of limestone in pre- cisely the same manner as I shall hereafter show them to be lodged and mixed in the caves and fissures of Germany and Gibraltar ; and as they would have been, supposing they were drifted to their piesrat place by the dUuvian viraters from some lodgment which they had before obtained in the upper regions of these extensive and connected cavities. That they are of antediluvian origin is evident from the presence of the extinct hyaena, tiger, and rhinoceros ; but there still ]remains a difficulty in ascertaining what was the pkMsefrom which they were so drifted ; 1. Are they the bones of animals that were drowned, and their bodies drifted in entire by the waters whidh in- troduced the mud and pebbles ? Or, 2, had they lain some time dead THE BONES AT ORESTON. 77 on the antediluvian sur&ce of the earth, till they were washed in at the deluge ? Or, 8, were they derived from the animals that had fidlen into the open antediluvian fissures, and there perishing, re- mained as entire skdetons in the spots on which they died, till they were drifted on further by the diluvian waters into the lowest recesses and under-vaultings with which these fissures had communication, and there mixed up, in irregular heaps, with mud, pebbles, and ttigular fragments of limestone, all falling down together with them to the places of their present interment, and producing in this short transit that quantity of fracture to which they have been sub- mitted ? 1. On the first of these hypotheses, had they been drowned, and the carcases drifted in by the diluvian waters, we should have found the skeletons more entire, and the bones less broken and less con- fusedly mixed together than they are ; and we should neither have had the marks of nibbling by the weasels' teeth on the bones of the wolf and horse, nor the hollow pits arising from partial decay on one surfoee only of the tibia of the ox ; for neither of these effects could have been produced on bones surrounded with a bed of mud. S. To the second hypothesis, that they had lain as dead bones on die antediluvian sur&ce till they were drifted from thence into the fissures, I would reply, that in a land inhabited as this was by wolves takd hyaenas, it is not likely that any carcases would have lain long mk the surface without at least the softer portions of the bones being eaten off by the hysenas, and thus we should have found them lacerated ratl^r than perfect, in the place to which they have siiice been drifted ; 78 THEORY OF THE ORIGIN OF they might also in this case have been e:8gpected to be more or less rolled, and to have lost their angles by-friction, which does not appear to be the fact Another objection also arises from this circumstance, that the bones of dead animals exposed on the surface of the earthy without any protection of soil or gravel, are soon destroyed by minute insects and continual atmospheric changes ; and were it not so, the world would by this time have been spread over most abundantly with the bones of the myriads of animals that have died on its sur&ce^ and received no burial ever since the period of the last retreat of the diluvial waters. 3. The third hypothesis is that which I propose as most probable^ viz. that the animals had Mien during the antediluvian period into the open fissures, and there perishing, had remained undisturbed in the spot on which they died, till drifted forwards by the diluvian waters to their present place in the lowest vaultings with which these fissures had communication. This explanation is supported by the strong fact, that animals at this day do fall continually into the few fissures that are still open, and that carnivorous as well as grami- nivorous animals lie in nearly entire skeletons in the open fissure at Buncombe Park, each in the spot on which it actually perished, upon the different ledges and landing places that occur in the course of its descent, and from which, if a second deluge were admitted to this fissure, it could only drift them downwards, and with them the loose angular fragments amidst which they now lie, to the lowest chambers in which the bottom of this fissure terminates. The teeth marks of the weasel, and the pitted surface of the tibia, will on this hypothesis A. THE BONES AT ORESTON.. 79 have been eflfects produced on the bones as they lay dead within the fissures (for a weasel might find access by minute crevices to the in^ terior of such fissures), and the wolves and hyaenas may have either fallen, like the horses, oxen, and deer, by accident into these natural pit&Us, or have been tempted to the fiital experiment of leaping into them to eat the carcases of the other animals, whilst they lay yet rnir decayed ^thin the fissures. The proportion of individuals ooUected at Qreston (the graminivorous being very much in excess beyond the carnivorous) is, as &r as it goes, consistent with this hypothesis; and if this solution appears fimcifiil, it is one that need not be urged, for by the same accident that dogs at this day fall into the open fissure at Buncombe Park, no less than sheep and deer, might the wolves and the hyaenas also of the antediluvian world have fallen, as well as the horses and oxen, into the chasms which then in countless numbers crossed their paths, whenever they ventured on the perilous regions of the hollow and fissile limestone ; and possibly some of them, whilst in the very act of pursuing their prey, may have dashed (like our less ferocious dogs in pursuit of game) into the chasms, which became the common grave of themselves and of the victim they were too eager to devour. And however new and unheard-of the existence of such fissures may be to those who have never visited or lived in a country composed of compact limestone, it is matter of painfiil notoriety to the farmers in Derbyshire, that their cattle are often lost by fidling into the still open fissures that traverse the districts of the Peak ; and it is no less matter of fitct, that similar accidents are avoided in the mountain limestone countries of Monmouth and Glamorganshire only 80 BONES IN GLAMORGANSHIRE. by walls careftQly erected round all the open chasms, with which ther^ also the same rocks are intersected *. In speaking of the bones at Oreston in my former paper On Eirkr dale, I had expressed a decided opinion that the cavetns in which they occur must have had some communication with the sur&ce throu^ which the bones may have been introduced ; and as Mr. Whidby has since found reason to adopt the same opinion in his further account of this third discovery to the Royal Society, accompanied by plans and sections of the caves, and Mr. Clifl has laid before the same society an anatomical description of the bones, with beautifiil drawings, all of which will in the Phil. Trans, for 1823, 1 shall conclude this part of my subject with referring my readers to these memoirs for further particulars. 6.— CAVE OF CRAWLEY ROCKS, NEAR SWANSEA. ' » ■ ■ ■ . The sixth deposit of bones which has come to my knowledge was in the parish of Nicholaston, on the coast of Glamorganshire, at a spot called Crawley Eocks, in Oxwich Bay, about twelve miles S.W, of Swansea ; it was discovered in the year 179^, in a quarry of lime- stone, on the property of T. M. Talbot, Esq. of Penrice Castle^ and no account of it has, I believe, been ever published ; some of the bones * In Sir John NichoFs park at Merthyr Mawr there are many such apertures dius walled round; and in mining countries we know that animals are perpetually being lost by falling into old shafts that are not sufficiently fenced round to keep them off. CAVE IN CRAWLEY ROCKS. 81 howeyer are preserved in the callectioQ of Miss Talbot, at Fenrioe; they are as follows : Elephant. ; Three portions of large molar teeth. Rhinoceros Right and left ossa humeri One atlas bone. Two molar teeth of upper jaw. Qx • First phalangal bone of left fore foot. l: Stag Lower extremity of the horn. i - Three molar teeth. One first phalangal bone, right leg. Hyaena Two canine teeth, much worn. These bones were found in a cavity of mountain limestone, which was accidentally intersected, like the cave at Kirkdale, in working a quarry : they have a slight ochreous incrustation, and a little earthy matter adhering to them ; but are not in the least degree rolled ; and the condyles of the two humeri of the rhinoceros, belonging to dif- ferent individuals, have in each case been entirely broken ofi. There is also in the collection of J. Lucas, Esq. at Southall, in this neigh- bourhood, the entire femur of a rhinoceros, said to have been found many years ago in a cavern of limestone at Port Inon, together with teeth, and a ^gantic skull, which was sent over to Appledore, and has not been heard of since. As there is a similar tradition of a large skull having been found at Crawley Rocks, together with the bones now at Fenrice, it is probable that this head, and possibly the femur cf the rhinoceros also, were found all together in the cave at Crawley, which has now been entirely cut away. M \ 88 CAVE OP PA^inLAND, 7..-CAVB OF FA.VILAND. The seventh and last case that has oocuned m this country is that of another discovery recently made on tihie coast of Glamorganshirei fifteen milea west of Swanses^ hetH^een Oxwich Bay and the Worms Head, on the property of C M« Talbot, Esq. It consists of two large caves feeing the sea, in the fitmt of a lofty cliff of limestone, whidi rises more than 100 fiset perpendiculacfy above the mouth of the caves, and below them slopes at an angle of about 40^ to ihe water's edgey pMsanting a bluff and ragged shore to the WBire% which are very< violent along this north coast of the estuary of tibe Sevens These caves are altogether invisible firom the land sid^ saA ace acces* siUe only at low watery except by dangerous dimbing akmg the face cisL neaxfy" precipitouft difl^ composed entirely of oompadi nwuntam limestone^ which dips nortli at an an^ of about 45^.^ One: of them only (called Goats Hdb) had been; noticed when: I lonaved there^ ffnd I shall desKribe it first, before I proceed to i^eak of the other. Its. existence had been long known, to the fiomers^ of ther adjacent hmds^ as w^ as the feet of ^containing lazge bones, but it had been tto fiurther attended to till last sammer^ when it was eiqAored by tibe sinrgeos and curate of tibe nearest village, Fort Inon, who disooveced hi it two^molar teeth of elephant, and a portion of a large curved tud^ wMch latter they buried again in the earth, where it remained tiU it was extracted a second time, on a furth^ examination of the cove in the and of December last by L. W. Dillwyn, Esq. and Miss Talbot, and IN THE SEA CLIEFS. 88 removied to Penrice Castle, toge&er with a iargd pert of the akuU io wfaidi it had bdbngedt and ser^ral baskets &dl of other teeth and bones. On the news of this furtiber diaoovery being communicated tom^ i limit immediately dO-om Derbydiire to Wales, and found the position of the cave to be such as I have above described ; and its floor at the mimtfa to be &om 80 to 40 fi^ above high-water mark, so that the waves of the highest storms occasionally dash into it, and have produced three or finir deep eock basins in its very threshold, by the rolling on their axis of large stones, which still lie at the bot- tom of these basins (see Plate XXI. h Hr) ; around ^eir edge, and in the outer part of the eave itself, are strewed a considerable number of sea pebbles, resting on the native limestone rock. The floor of the cave ascends rapidly from its mouth inwards to the fiirthest ex- tremity (see Plate XXI. and description), no that the pebbles have not been drifted in beyond twenty feet, or about one-third of its whole length; in the remaining two-thirds no disturbance by the waters of the present sea appears ever to have taken place^ and within this point at which the pebbles cease, the floor is covered with anuiss a1^1fla8t sexM^ shape at a time when the ivoiy was hard, and not crumbling to pieces as it is at present on the sh^test touch, , we may , from this Gircumstance assiuae to them a^ery high antiquit;|i^ which is furtl^ confirmed by the decayed state of the shells thatjay jui contact with the thigh bone, and, like the rods and rings, must have been buried with the woman. The wolTs toe bone also was probably reduced to its present form, and used by her as a pin or skewer, the immediate neighbourhood being wholly destitute of wood. The circumstance of the remains of a British camp existing on the hill immediately above this cave, seems to throw much light on the character and date of the woman under consideration ; and what- e¥» may have been her occupation, the vicinity of a camp would aSBoitd a motive for residence^ as well as the means of subsistence, in what is now so exposed and uninviting a solitude. The firagments of diarcoal, and recent bones of oxen, sheep, and pigs, are probably the femuns of culinary operations ; the larger shells may have been collected also for food from the adjacent shor^ and the small nerite ahdk either have been kept in the pocket for the beauty of theit yellow colour, or have been used, as I am informed by the Bev. Henry Enight, of Newton Nottage, they now are in that part of Glamorgtaishire^ in some simple species of game. The ivory rods also may have either been applicable to some game, as we use chess men or pins on a cribbage-board ; or they may be fragments of pinis, such as Sir Richard Hoare has found in the barrows of \^ts and SIMILAB BEMAINS FOUND IN BARROWS. 91 iPonetyitogeth^ with large bodkins also of ivory, and ^iiidh were probably used to &sten together the coarse^ garments of the andent Britons* It is a curious coincidence also, that he has found in a baiTOw near Warminster, at Cop Head Hill, the shell of a nerite, and some ivory beads^ which were laid by the skeletons of an infant and an adult fiamale, apparently its mother *. Tfaativoiy rings were at' that time used as armlets, is probable Sftlm the circumstance of similar rings having also been found by Sir Richard Hoare in these same barrows ; and from a passage in Strabo^ lib« 4, which Mr. Knight has pointed out to me, id which, speaking of the small taxes which it was possible to levy on the Britons, he specifies their imports to be very insignificant, consisting chiefly of ivory armlets and necklaces, Ligurian stones, glass vessels, and other such like trifles. The custom of burying with their possessors the ornaments and chief utensils of the deceased, is evident from the remains of this kind discovered every where in the andent barrows ; and this may explain the circumstance of our finding with the bones of the woman at Faviland the ivory rods, and rings, and nerite cbdlB^ which she had probably made use of during life. I am at a loss to conjecture what could have been the object of collecting the red oxy de of iron that seems to have been thrown over the body when * A long and rude shaped pin made of bone, of very high antiquity^ being of the size and length of a large woooden skewer, and very similar to the smaller fragments of ifovy from Paviland, has recently been found on Foxcomb bUl, near Oxford ; and my friend the Rey. J. J. Conybeare has discovered a bone bodkin, nearly of thfe same sise^ amcmg the remains of die British or Belgic settlements which he has lately been tracing out ivith great success on the flat smnmits called Charmy Down^ Banner Down^ SaBsbiiryj and CJaverton Down, in the immediate neighbourhood of Bath. n2 92 DATE OF THE HUMAN SKELETON. laid in the grave : it is a substance^ however, which occurs abundaiitly in the limestone rocks of the neighbourhood. The disturbed state of the diluvial earth all over the bottom of the cave, and fractured condition of the ancient bones, may have been produced by digging in search of more ivory, or to gratify the curiosity which the discovery of such large and numerous remains must naturally have excited ; and in the course of these diggings the antediluvian bones would become mixed with those of modem ani- mals which had been introduced for food. The preservation of so large a part of the elephant's tusk may probably have arisen from the use to which it was destined, and had been in part appropriated im the making of rods and rings. From all these circumstances there is reason to conclude, that the date of these human bones is coeval with that of the military occu- pation of the adjacent summits, and anterior to, or coeval with, the Boman invasion of this country. The above are the most remarkable phenomena in the interior of this cave. It remains only to describe a long cavernous aperture that rises like a crooked chimney from its roof to the nearly vertical face of the rock above : its form and diameter are throughout irre- gular, the latter being about twelve feet where longest, and in its narrowest part about three feet ; so that it is impossible the large ele- phant, whose bones were found in the cave below, could have been drifted down entire through this aperture. It expands and contracts irregularly from D, its lower extremity in the roof of the cavern, to K, the point atwhich it terminates in the fece of the diff. (See Plate XXI.) Along this tortuous ascent are several lateral cavities, L. L. L., the RECENT BONES IN AN UPPER VAULT. 93 bottoms of which a^Rxrd a plaoe of lodgment for a bed of brown earth m libout a foot thick, and derived apparently firom dust driven ia con- tinually by the wind. In this earth I found the bones of various birds, of moles, water-rats, mice, and fish, and a few land shells ; all these are clearly the remains of modem animals, and their presence in this ahnost inaccessible spot can only be explained by referring the bones of birds, moles, rats, and mice, to the agency of hawks, and the fish-bones to that of sea-gulls. The land shells are such as live at present on the rock without, and may easily have fallen in. Had there been any stalagmite uniting these bones into a breccia, they would have afforded a perfect analogy to the accumulation of modem birds' bones, by the agency of hawks, at Gibraltar ; where Major Imrie describes them as forming a breccia of modem origin in fissures of the same rock which has other cavities filled with a bony breccia of more ancient date, and which I shall presently endeavour to show is of the same antediluvian origin with the older parts of the bones that occur on the floor of the cave at Paviland. Whilst exploring this cavern, I was informed by the workmen that there was another of the same kind about a hundred yards fiirther to the west ; and proceeding to examine it, I found it to be very similar to the first, in size, form, and position, and closed on every side with solid rock; excepting the mouth, which is large and open to the sea ; its body contracts gradually towards the inner extremity, and upwards also towards the roof, where it terminates in a vein, that is still filled with calcareous spar : the cave itself, in fact, seems to be merely an enlargement of this vein. There is also a similar,^ but longer and more narrow, aperture immediately on the east of Goats Hole, the 94 TWO OTHER. CAVES ADJOINING GOATS HOLE. bottom of whichy being on the level of the sea, is almost peipetually under water. This east cave also is seen to terminate upwards in a vein of calcareous spar. The floor of the west cave is at its mouth about thirty feet above the sea, and ijdore horiacmtal than that of Goats Hole, and being throughout within reach of the highest storm waves^ is strewed over entirely, to the depth of more than a foot, with a bed of small sea pebbles. Digging through these^ I found beneath them a bed of the same argillaceous loam and fragments of limestone as in the Croats Hole, and a still more abundant accumulation of ammal remains. In a short time I collected two baskets' fiiU of the teeth and bones of ox, hors^ deer, and bear; and have reason to think the entire floor beneath the pebbles is covered with a con- tinuous mass of the same diluvial earth and fragments of stones, in- termixed with teeth and bones, and altogether of the same age and origin with tlie antediluvian part of those in Goats Hol^ the near position of which renders it probable that both these caves are re- siduary ofishoots or branches of some larger cavern, that has be^i cut away by the denudation which formed the present diffif, and whose main trunk is now no more ; and that by means of this main trunk they originally had communication with each other, and received at the same time the animal remains and diluvial detritus that are com- mon to them both. Their relative position is such, that if both were prolonged towards the sea they would soon meet, and either become confluent, or intersect each other. The time and manner in which these two caverns received the antediluvian teeth and bones, and the earthy matter through which they are dispersed, would not so easily have been ascertained had it ORIGIN OF THE ANTEDILUVIAN BONES. 95 not been in our power to illustrate them by the analogies of other cayerns now under consideration. From a comparison of these with the internal evidence afforded at Faviland, it seems nearly certain that the latter me identical in all the circumstances of their diluvial and antediluvial phenomena with those of the former ; and that occurring as they do, in the vertical cliffii that flank the submarine valley which forms the estuary of the Severn, they are analogous to the caves we find in the equally vertical and not less lofty cliffs that flank the in- land valleys of the Avon at Clifton, of the Weissent river at Muggen- dorf, of the Bode river at Rubeland in the Hartz, and of the Mur at Feckaw, near Gratz, in Styria ; all being cliffii produced by diluvial denudation, and all containing^ in a nearly vertical precipice, the mouths of caves which are but the truncated extremities of other and originally more extensive caverns, which descended fi-om the ante- diluvian sur&ce, and terminated in the vaults that still remain in those portions of the rock which have not been washed away by the diluvial waters, from whose action these dlfis have derived their origin. By such larger and upper chambers, whose destruction I am now assuming (and for the proof of which I must refer to the con- cluding part of this work), the animal remains may either have been wadied in at the same time with the diluvial loam and fragments of stone^ in the midst of which they lie^ or ha ve fallen in and perished in the period immediately preceding the deluge, and been sub- sequently drifted onwards to their present place in the lowest re- cesses with which the upper cavities had communication. The detail df the manner in which this latter process may have taken place has be^ already pointed out in my description of the caves at Oreston. ^6 ^ENEBAt CONCLUSION AS TO ne&r Plymouth. I haVe as yet fouiid ho evidietioe td ^ow tliHt^tMdfT of the caves at Paviland ivere occupied as antediluvian dens. ' ^ ^^ ^^ In the flat surface of the fields, a quarts of a mile distant inta3H# from the cliff of Paviland, is an open cavern, to whmh it is poesil^e 4iof descend only by a ladder, and which, like the open fissure at thifl^' combe Park, contains at its bottom, and in the course of its dejscei^' the uncovered skeletons of sheep, dogs, fox^ and other modern^ animals, that occasionally &11 into it and permh; It is needless to repeat the arguments I have founded on facts \i01 • • • • -. this, I found in 18£0, in the collection of the Monastery of Ktein^. mmster, near Steyer, in Upper Austria, skulls and bones of the Vrem. spelaeus in consolidated beds, of diluvial gravel, forming a pudding- stone, and dug for building near the monastery. M. Cuvier men- tions the occurrence of teeth, supposed to be those of bears, witli the remains of elephant, rhinoceros, and hyaena, in the diluvium near Ganst^t,^ on the Necker ; and Mr. Pentland has discovered in Italy the remains of bears mixed with the bones of hyaena, elephant, and rhinoceros in the diluvium of the Val d'Amo. Hence it appears that these bears lived with the elephant and rhinoceros in the period im- mediately preceding the formation of the diluvium ; and the same thing has been already shown of the extinct hyaena in the gravel of France, Germany, and England. M. BosenmuUer states that in all the caverns he has examined, the bones are disposed nearly after the same manner; sometimes scattered separately, and sometimes accumulated in beds and heaps of many feet in thickness ; they are found every where, from the entrance to the deepest and most secret recesses ; never in entire skeletons, but angle bones mixed confusedly from all parts of the body, and animals of all ages. The skulls are generally in the lowest part of the beds of bone, having from their form and weight sunk or roUed downwards, through the longer and lighter bones, during tiie agitation to which they have been submitted ; the lower jaws are rarely found in contact with or near to the upper ones, as would follow from the fact last mentioned*. He adds, that they are often buried in a brown * At Eirkdale, not one skull, and few, if any, of the larger bones, are found entire ; for these had all been broken up by the hyaenas to extract the brains and marrow; and in their strong and worn out teeth we see the instruments by which they were thus ■ • • • •• •• • • 10* S!rATE OF PRESERVATION OF BONES IN GERMAN CAVES. •.V ;]^Uaceous or marly earth, as in the cases of Gailenreuth, Zahnlochy Jid in the Hartz, and tJiat some of this earth, from an analysis by '•-'M. Frischmaii, was found to bontain a large proportion of anlinal matter. •. In the cayes of Gailenreutihi and Mockas, a large proportion of tlie bones is invested with stalactite. Even entire beds, and heaps of them many feet thick, are sometimes cemented together by it, so as to form a compact breccia, but they are never found in the substance of the rock itself. At Sharzfeld and in the Carpathians, ihey are some- times enveloped with agaric mineral (lac lunae) ; they have undergone no alteration of form, but the larger bones are generally separated from their epiphyses. Their usual colour is yellowish white, but brown where they have lain in dark-coloured earth, as at Lichten- stein. At Mockas their degree of decay is by far the greatest; even the enamel of the teeth is far gone, and the bones are perfectly white, having lost all their animal gluten, and acquired the softness and spongy appearance, as well as colour, of calcined bones ; still their form is perfect, and substance inflexible, and, when struck, they ring like metallic bodies falling to the ground. These retain simply their phosphate of lime. In other caverns they are usually lei98 decayed, but they sometimes exfoliate and crack on exposure to air, and the teeth, particularly, are apt to split and.&ll to pieces, as are also those at Eirkdale *. destroyed. The bears, on the other hand, not beuig exclusively carnivorous, nor having teeth fitted for the cracking large bones, have left untouched the osseous remains of their own species. * It is mentioned as a curious accident, that of five caves in the calcareous hSBis^ near Muggendorf, that flank the valley of the Weisent-stream, three on the north chaia contain not a fragment of any bones, while two on the south side are full of them. This BEARS LIVED AND DIED IN THE CAVES. 108 M. RosenmuUer is decidedly of opinion with M. Cuvier^ that the bears' bones are the remains of animals which lived and died throng successive generations in the caves in which we find them; nay, even that they were also bom in the same caves ; in proof of which he has fomid some bones of a bear, so small, that it must have died immediately after its birth, and other bones of individuals that must have died in early life^ like the young hyaenas which have been found at Eirkdale: and M. Blumenbach expresses precisely the same opinion in his first Specimen Archasologise Telluris, p. 14. ^ Utut interim sit, speluncarum istarum ratione et ossium ursi^ nbrum in iisdem situ persuasus sum, ea, neque ut quorundam ferebat opinio ab hominibus illic illata, neque quae aliorum sententia fiiit a diluvio illuta esse, sed quod et CI. De Luc asserit, ipsos istos specus harum ferarum natives quondam recessus et postmodum sepulchretum fiiisse/' The above description of the cave at Gailenreuth, extracted prin- dpaUy firom RosenmuUer, and confirmed by my own observations on the spot, may be taken as an example of the general state of the bones in the other caves on the Continent, of which it is superfluous here^ say any thing more than to subjoin a list of the most important of theni^ maj probaUy be exphuned by supposing the mouths of the former to hare been cbsed and uiaccessible in the antediluvian period^ and afterwards laid open by denudation* In the adjacent valley of the Esback, at the castle of Rabenstein, they occiur in caves on both sides of a similar valley of denudation; and even admitting them to have been all open and accessible in the period above alluded to, it does not follow that they would all have been equally tenanted by bears, whose gregarious habits would lead them to prefer S'firequented den to a solitary one; and this predilection, acting through successive generations, would accumulate the bones of hundreds or thousands in one cave^ by the side of another which may have remained all the while almost wholly unoccupied. 104 EXTENT OF CAVES ON THE CONTINENT. refer to M. Cuvier's Animaux fossiles, for farther details taken from the authors by whom these caves have been described. The caves alluded to are as follows : 1. That of Scharzfeld, in Hanover, in the south border of the Hartz, described by Leibnitz, De Luc, and Bruckmann. Behrens, in his Hercynia Curiosa, speaks of several more in the neighbourhood of the Hartz ; from most of these the bones were collected during a long course of years, and sold for their imaginai^ medicinal virtues, as the bones of the Licome^ or fossil Unicom, of which a most absurd drawing is given by Leibnitz in his Protogfta. 2. That of Bauman, in the county of Blankenberg, in Brunswick, on the east border of the Hartz forest, and described by Leibnitz and De Luc, 8. The caves that next attracted attention were those of the Car-- pathians, and the bones found in them were at first known by the name of dragons' bones, and have been described by Hayne and Bruckmann. 4. But the most richly furnished are the Caves of Franconia, described by Esper and Rosenmuller, near the sources of the Mayn, between Nurenburg, Bamberg, and Bayreuth, in the vicinity of Muggendorf, and known by the names of Gailenreuth, Mockas, Zahnloch, Zewig, Babenstein, Schneiderlock, and Kiihloch. 5. A fifth locality occurs at Gliicksbrun and Leibenstein, near Meinungen, on the south-^west border of the Thuringerwald. 6. And a sixth in Westphalia, at Kluterhoehle and Sundwick, in the country of Mark. An account of these is shortly to be published by Professor Goldfuss and Mr. A. L. Sack, of Bonn. GRAMINIVOROUS ANIMALS RARELY FOUND IN BEARS' CAVES. 105 M. Cuvier states, that the bones found in these caverns are iden- tical over an extent of more than 200 leagues ; that three-fourths of the whole belong to two species of bear, both extinct; the ursus spela&us and ursus arctoideus^, and two-thirds of the remainder to extinct hyaenas -f- ; a very few to a large species of the cat family, being neither a lion, tiger, panther, or leopard, but most resembUng the jaguar of South America: with them is found a species of glutton, and a wolf or dog (not distinguishable from a recent species), a fox, and polecat. It has been said, that in the caves thus occupied, there occur no remains of the elephant, rhinoceros, horse, ox, tapir, or any of the ruminantia or rodentia, and in this respect they differ materially from that of Yorkshire; but such variation is consistent with the different habits of bears and hyaenas, arising from the different structure of their teeth and general organization ; from which it follows that bears prefer vegetable to animal food ; and, when driven * I found in the collection of M. Soemmering^ whom I visited at Frankfort in 182S, the head of a third species of bear^ from the cave of Guilenreuth, scarcely distinguish- able from the head of a common brown bear from Nortli America^ which he had placed by the side of it for comparison. He had the kindness to lend it me^ that I might convey it to M. Cuvier at Paris. It was much calcined, and appeared to be of the same age with the bones of the extinct species. This head has been since described by M. Cuvier in the 4th vol. of his new edition, p. 356^ with engravings of it at plate 27, fig. 5 and 6^ of the same volume. Though it approaches so closely to the brown bear, there are points in which it differs from it ; and it is on this variation that M. Cuvier rests his opinion, that it is a third species of fossil bear, till now unnoticed, and differing firom any existing species of that genus. M. Soemmering has called it the Ursus Priscus. -)* I am disposed to think that this proportion, as it relates to the hyaenas, is too large ; for in visiting all the caverns, as well as several collections of bones taken fix>m them, in Germany, I could find very few fragments of teeth or bones of the hyaena, amidst hundreds which belonged to bears* 106 CASES WHEKE THEY HAVE BEEN SO FOUND. to the latter, prefer sucking the blood to eating the fleshi whilst hyaenas are beyond all other beasts addicted to eating bones. From this circumstance it is indeed probable, that in the caves inhabited diiefly by bears, the bones of other animals should be extremely rare ; they are not, however, wholly wanting. M. DeLuc (Lettres, voL iv. p. 588) mentions that the remains of rhinoceros have been found in the cave of Scharzfeld, and ascertained by Professor HoUman, of Gottingen, to belong to that animal ; and M. Soemmer- ing informed me, that he is assured of the fact, having seen the tooth of the animal here alluded to in HoUman's collection at Gottingen : an account of it is given by Hollman in the Conmient : Gottingens : M. Esper also mentions, that bones of elephants have been found by M. Frischmann in the cave of Schneiderloch ; and speaking of Zahn- loch» his words are, ^ On a trouv6 ici des morceaux des dents d'elqihant» ce que les fragmens prouvent incontestablement^ la finrm^ la croiss- ance, la structure interne, et en g6n6ral tons les characteres, mettent hors de doute la r6alit6 de cette production." And Mr. Sack, of Bonn, whom I have before quoted, has found in the cave of Sund'- wick, within the last two years, the molar teeth and foot bones of the rhinoceros, and the horns, jaws, and other bones of deer, in the same cave with the remains of the hyaena, glutton, and two extinct species of bear ; they have moreover the marks of teeth on them, and their softer parts and condyles have been gnawed o£ Hence it follows, that graminivorous animals occur, though rarely, in the caves of Germany ; and they may either have been washed in together with the diluvial loam and pebbles, or have been dragged in for prey by the few hyaenas that occasionally intruded. That the elephant ELEPHANT AND RHINOCEROS IN GRAVEL, NEAR THE CAVES. 107 and rhinoceros lived in the neighbourhood of these caves, in the period immediately preceding the formation of the diluvium, is probable^ from the abundant occurrence in it of the bones of both these animals near the caves of Scharzfeld, in the Hartz, and of Altenstein, in Saxe Meinungen, mentioned by Blumenbach. (Ar- chasolo^ Telluris, Fart I. p. 13 and 15i) We shall hereafter see that carnivorous animals have been found recently in vertical fissures, as well as in the caves. Professor HoUman, in the Commentar: Gottingens: for 1752, T. 11. p. 215, has published an account of many baskets full of these large bones, which were discovered 70 years ago, in marl pits (i. e. diluvial loam), at the village of Horden, near Herzberg, and witliin six miles of the cave of Scharzfeld, and sent to Gottingen ; amongst them were portions of five skeletons of rhinoceros ; and I have already mentioned another discovery of the bones of elephant, rhinoceros, and hyaena, made in 1808, in the same neighbourhood of Herzberg^ between Osterode and Dorst ; they were also embedded in diluvial miarl, and are described by Professor Blumenbach, in Fart II. of his Ardiseologia Telluris. The &cts of the same extinct species of hycena, being common to the caves and gravel of France, Germany, and England, and of bears occurring in the diluvial gravel of Upper Austria, Wirtemberg, and Italy, prove both these animals to have been the antediluvian contemporaries of the extinct elephant and rhinoceros ; there is, therefore, no anachronism in finding the remains of the two latter in dens that were occasionally inhabited by the hysenas and bears. p2 108 HARMONY OF GERMAN AND ENGLISH CAVES. EVIDENCE OF DILUVIAL ACTION IN THE CAVES AND FISSURES OF GERMANY, I come now to consider, what is the evidence of diluvial action afforded by these caverns, and how far it is analogous to that which we find in the caves of our own country ; and having made it my busi- ness during the summer of 1822 to visit Germany, for the purpose of investigating this important question, I shall now proceed to show by a detailed description and drawings of the interior of those among them which are most remarkable for containing bones, that there prevails throughout them all, in comparing them with each other, as well as with those in England, a harmony of circumstances exceeding what my fullest expectations would have anticipated ; all tending to esta- blish the important conclusion of their having been once and once only submitted to the action of a deluge, and that this event happened since the period in which they were inhabited by the wild beasts. In every cave I examined, I found a similar deposit of mud or sand, sometimes with and sometimes witholft an admixture of rolled pebbles and angular fragments of rock, and having its surface more or less abundantly covered over with a single crust of stalagmite ; and in those among them, which had been inhabited as dens before the intro- duction of the mud and pebbles, the latter are always sup^nduced upon the remains of the wild beasts. I had, indeed, in my first paper on Kirkdale, extracted the same conclusion from descriptions given by De Luc, Esper, Leibnitz, and other writers ; parts of which I have subjoined in the note annexed. MUD OR LOAM IN ALL THE GERMAN CAVES. 109 But they had, many of them, overlooked the fact of the occurrence of pebbles in the earthy sediment, and the no less important feature of there being but one stalagmitic crust incumbent upon the mud ; and they had ventured to offer no reasonable conjecture, as to the time or manner of the introduction of these earthy materials, or their re- lations to the period in which the caverns were inhabited ; these desiderata I am now enabled to supply on my own authority, having conducted my observations with a careful regard to a comparison of the phenomena of these caverns, with those that occur in England *. The caverns themselves are composed of a succession of vaidted chambers, communicating with each other by long and narrow pass- ages, ascending and descending irregularly through limestone rocks * De Luc has described in the following words^ the matrix in which the bones are lodged in the cave, at Scharzfeld : ^' Le fait est done simplement, que le sol de ces caverns est d^une terre calcaire^ qu'en creusant cette couche molle^ on en tire quantity de fragmens d'os, et qu'il s'y trouve aussi des concretions pierreuses qui renferment des os." — De Luc, Lettres, Vol. IV. p. 590. Leibnitz, also, in his description of this cavern, has the following passage to the same purpose, " Limo nigricante vel fusco infectum est solum." — Leibnitz, Protogcea, p. 65. Esper thus describes the state of the floor 4iear the entrance of one of the largest caverns at Gailenreuth. '^ Dans toij^ la contr^e, le terrain est marneux, mel^ avec du limon, et tire sur le jaune, mais ici on trouve une terre moins limoneuse dans une profon- deur considerable." — Esper, p, 9- Rosenmullcr, speaking generally of the same subject^ says, " Ces fragmens se trouvent assez souvent d^pos^s dans une terre brundtre argileuse ou marneuse, comme dans les cavemes pr^s de Gailenreuth au Zahnlocb, et dans les cavemes du Hartz." It is also stated, that a sediment of mud was found on the sides and floor of a cave, at Glucksbrun, in the Thuringerwald, near Meinungen, when it was newly opened in cutting a road in 1799 ; and that in other caverna also there is mud. In all the above quotations, the fact of the mud is clearly stated, bu( no satisfactory attempt is made to offer any ex* planation as to its origin. My own observations in 1 822 enable me now to speak with more confidence and precision on this subject than I could do on the authority of others. 110 GENERAL STATE OF THE FLOOR, AND POSITION of various ages and formations. The general state of their interior is nearly as follows. 1. The first thing we see on entering them is an irregular carpet or false floor of stalagmite : this has been much broken, and almost wholly destroyed, in those which have been ran- sacked for centuries in search of bones ; but in the newly discovered caves, and in others, which, containing but few bones, have not been broken up, its extent is great, and sometimes totaL 2. Between this crust, and the actual floor of native rock, there is usually a bed of loam or dfluvial mud, interspersed with rolled pebbles, angular stones, and bones, and varying in thickness firom a few inches to 20 or 30 feet ; there is no alternation of the mud or pebbles, with any second or third general crust of stalagmite, nor any thing to indicate that the cause which introduced them has operated more than once. 3. Beneath this mud, we arrive at the native rock, or actual floor of the den, the surface of which is very uneven, and sometimes polished, as if by the trampling of its antediluvian in- habitants. In those caverns, which appear to have been occupied as dens of wild beasts, before the introduction o£ the mud, the quantity of bones contained in the uppermost chambers is comparatively small ; but, as we descend deeper, we find them more and more abun- dant, till, at length, in the lower vaultings, or cellarage, they are accumulated in enormous heaps, and the vaults themselves become filled and entirely choked up with a congeries of bones, pebbles, an- gular stones, and mud, piled confusedly together. In many portions of this mass the earth is loose, and the bones may easily be extracted; in other parts it is consolidated by stalagmitic infiltrations into a hard OF THE BONES, MUD, AND PEBBLES, IN CAVES NEAR SPA. 1 1 1 osseous breccia, resembling that of Gibraltar, and along the shores of the Mediterranean, but not so red. It resembles it also in bemg fiiU of irregular cells, and of small veins, that are lined internally with a thin pellicle of stalagmite. In this breccia of the under vaultings artificial holes, or small galleries, have been dug to extract the bones ; and of these only it is true that the roof and sides, as well as the floor, have bones adhering to them : in the natural chambers there is * not a single fragment of bone, except upon the floor. These general observations apply to the caves and fissures near Spa, as well as to those in the Hartz Forest and Franconia, and it will be convenient to begin my more detailed account of them with those cases that are most simple. I. CAVES NEAR SPA. In the transition limestone which occurs in the neighbourhood of Spa, at Theux, and Verviers, I found numerous vertical fissures extending upwards to the sur&ce, and often communicating laterally with other fissures and with small caverns. All these fissures were filled entirely, and the caverns partially, with a mass of diluvial mud and rolled pebbles. Amongst the latter were chalk, flints, and many varieties of quartz and slate rocks. The mud in some of the larger fissures abounds with ochreous concretions, formed stalagmitically since its introduction to its present vertical position ; and like that in the cave near Wirksworth, illustrates the history of the ochre I have before mentioned, as having been worked in a similar fissure con- 118 CAVES IN WESTPHALIA. taining antediluvian bones of elephants, &c. at Hutton, in the Mendip Hills. In the caverns near Theux, I found a crust of stalagmite covering the mud; and above this stalagmite some bones of modern animals, e. g. chicken, fox, dog, and sheep : the mud beneath the stalagmite has not been examined, but I could obtain no int^genoe of bones having been as yet discovered in it. In this district there are other large caves near Spa and Venders, which I had not time to visit, but which deserve examination, with a view to the discovery of bones beneath their stalagmitic floor *. II. CAVES IN WESTPHALIA. I had no opportunity to visit the caves of Eliiterhoehle and Sundwick, in Westphalia, but I was informed that they occur in the same transition limestone as those of Venders and Theux ; and in the Museum of the University of Bonn, I found magnificent heads * The manner in which these fissures are filled up to the surface of the soil is pre* cisely similar to that of the mud vems^ or dykes, which I have already described as oc- curring in the limestone rock at Chudleigh^ and to those dykes which Mr. Strangways (in the 5th vol. of the Geol. Trans. Plate ^6) has represented as occurring in vertical fissures of transition limestone on the banks of the Pulcovca, near Petersburg, and as being filled with diluvial gravel, containing boulders of granite, such as are scattered over the surface of all that country : these dykes have immediate communication with a bed of the same diluvium, also containing granite boulders, and reposing on the surface of the limestone in which the fissures occur. ■ * It is probable that the observation of dykes, or veins, of this kind, so evidently filled by substances poiured in from above, suggested to Werner the erroneous idea, that basaltic and metallic veins also had been filled by materials introduced fi*om above in a similar manner. CAVE OF SCHARZFELD. ENTRANCE BY A FISSUBR 118 of the fossil bear, tiger, and glutton, collected from thence. These heads have been recently described, with excellent engravings by Professor Goldfuss, in the Nova Acta Naturae Curiosorum, v. 10, and are precisely of the same species with those found in the caverns of England, the Hartz Forest, and Franconia. I have already men- tioned that further accounts of the Westphalian caves are in pre- paration by Professor Goldfuss, and M. A. L. Sack, of Bonn. III. CAVE OF SCHARZFELD. The next caverns I examined were those of Scharzfeld, near Herzberg, in Hanover, on the west border of the Hartz Forest, not far from (Jottingen. The rock in which these caves occur is mag- nesian limestone, of the same age with the limestone of Sunderland, in England, and being the first floetz limestone of Werner ; occasion- ally it is very cellular, and abounds in fissures and caverns. The position of the great cave containing the bones is at an elevation of at least 500 feet above the nearest river, and in the centre of one of the many wooded ridges which connect the higher mountains of the Hartz with the plain, and are separated fi*om each other by deep valleys of denudation. The entrance to this cave is not, as usually happens, in the side of a rocky cliff or precipice, but by an open fissure, placed like a well, in the surface of a plain field, and communicating directly downwards by a steep but practicable descent on ledges of rock into the body of the cave. (See Plate XIV. a, and explanation.) This fissure may luve^been^ tbe ad;iial aperture ^by ^Mdi the imimaid eame bfiUnA out whilB^'the' cKf e was iiiiiabited, and by whieh also tibe tnitd'uid^p^ bifiSttkat occur below were drifted in. Descending by it,' we find ourselres in a Imig^and lofty cavern, terminated at one eitremify by tlie fismnre just mentioned, and proceeding in the o|^>osite ^rectle^ to a great distaaace iibto the body of the hill. It haa several latidfal communkationa and connecting passages, for a detailed desoriptiMi of which I refer my readers to De Luc's Letters, voL 4. The point to which I wish, at present, to direct their attention, is the state of the floor and position of the bones. The floor appears to have been at one time (!6vered in many places with a crust of stalagmite, of which there are a few traces still remaining, but the greater part has been destroyed by Vilritors con* tinuftUy digging into the subjacent mud in search of boUes. Ili my dttawing^ (see Plate XIV. c) this cniist is restored to the state Ita which it probahty existed when the first diggings began to be made in i^; It present we see little more thau a bed of mud aiidpebbles^'an^ broken fiagments of stalagmite covering the bottom of the cave, and iiiterq>ersed with teeth of bears and other animals, and fragmeUtS <^ bdnes. " Itr some parts of the floor, holes like that at b have been dug'dirou^ this bed of' mud td the limestone rock below, for ^ht purpose of collecting bones ; in other parts the natural rock projects iltt>v6'tfa^'sttrflte» of >the mud, ftkid is without any stalagmite. The gcfaertd-^ Uff pe a t to be' ttf the Whote corresponds with the descriptidik gr^ti of it by Gottschalk m bis Guide fbr the Hartz : ** the bdttoin is iMtSt' e i iA y wh eirfr tstfvered Witii a fiHe iodse iimhf fiill of' broken UND£R VAULTIMjSS FILLED WITH MUD ANBCBONISS. lUt w. Mang tlie.«dges. of .this i floor » ore seen la iaomber of smaUeir Gaveme^ n^ch pass off from tlie maiii chamber tO'VazioHS distanoes in the body of the rock ; the bottom of these is ^Ued also with -tike samemafcerials that cover tli^ floor of the great chamber^ Beneath tibe latter are also numerous undervaultings, and small branching catacombs of irregular shape; (see h. i ;) some terminating in a col de sac^ x)thers commimicating by a lateral aperture mth some adr jacent carity, which again has further communications either with the main-chamber above^ or with .other smaller tmes below, so that the rock is intersected and undermined like an .irregular mass of honeycomb. These undervaultings have for the most part been en* tirely filled up, as at i, with a mass of brown earthy or diluvial loaitei through which, as their matrix, are disseminated enormous quantitieB of broken bone^ teeth^ angular fi»gments and pebbles of limestone, in the cavities thus choked up tibereis no room for any stalagmitic crust, as there is no expanded surface over which it could be spread. The mass which fills them, however, is in some parts firmly cemented together by stalagmitic infiltrations of calc sinter ; more frequently the mud is semi-indurated, spungy, and cellular, and may be readily cut with a knife; in other parts it is quite soft and loose, and the bones and pebbles are simply imbedded in it These lower vaults have in no case that I could find been laid open to their full extent, but are still choked up below with matttt of the nature above described, and would no doubt richly repay the labour of any person who has leisure to e:!(plore them. The excava^ tbns^ that have been made in them have prpducefl smaU artifidwl caverns, the sides and roof of which are crowded witli, and sometiiai^ a2 116 NO BONES IN THE ROOF OR SIDES, ABOVE THE MUD. In great part made up of bones ; (see Plate XIV. h ;) but not a partkie of bone occurs adhering to the roof or sides of the great cumber (b) above the level of its floor *. There are several artificial excavations similar to that represented at H, in one of which I found the head of a large bear, firom whidh the upper part of the skull had been broken off, and a pebble lay i&i- bedded in mud in the cavity of the skull f . Close to it was an undtr jaw, (possibly of the same animal,) and both were surrounded with mud, pebbles, and bones, the latter exceeding in proportion both the former : they were so firmly packed together, that with a small ham- mer and chisel, I could advance but slowly in extracting them ; but, with proper instruments, cart-loads of bones might easily be obtained. Whilst working on this mass, I could not help imagining that I was in the cavernous fissure at Plymouth, so precisely analogous were all the circumstances before me to those I had there witnessed, as to the manner and matrix in which the bones were packed together, and the difficulty of unpacking without destroying them. Their state of * I dwell more on this drcumstanee than I should have otherwise thought neces* sary, because preceding writers on this subject have overlooked the important distino* lion I am now drawing, and have stated the occurrence of bones in Ae roof and sides in such general terms^ that persons who have not themselves carefully inspected the caverns with a view to this particular point may conclude from their descriptions that die bones are found indiscrimlnirtely adherbg to the sides and roof of the upper diam- bers, as well as of die lower vaults, which is not the &ct t In another skull from this cave, which was given me by Professor Blumenbadit the cavities of the brun and nose are entirely flBed up with the same kind of brown nifl: and in a third which I found at Gaikprcsuibt the cavity of the brain contains half a dozen fragments of stone cemented together by calc sinter. These specimens I have deposited in die Museum at Oxford, together with a complete series of bones, &&; iHiistyiatfaig all the moat important phenomena amndoMd in tbia work, a^ OQcunring in, Reaves of Genoany, as weO aa in those of £ngland« CAVE OF BAUMANS HOHLEL 117 tureeervation also is nearly the saxne^ being less perfect than is usual in the other caves of Germany and England. Instead of the ordinary white or yellow, they are of a dingy brown colour approaching to bkck ; and whilst wet may be readily crushed to a dark earth-like powder, which I presume to be the black earth said by many writers to abound in this cavern, but of which I could neither here, nor in any other cave^ excepting that of Eiihloch, near Muggendor^ dis- cover any further traces, though I looked for it very carefully in every direction. The circumstances of this exception are very peculiar, and will presently be described. The looseness of the earth in which the bones are for the most part embedded, both at Scharzfeld and Plymouth, and the comparatively small quantity of stalagmite that accompanies them, may explain the cause of their greater state of decay than is usual where the mud is more argillaceous, or the incrustation of each individual bone with stalagmite more emnplete. IV. CAVE OF BAUMANS HOHLE. This celebrated and much frequented cave^ or suite of caverns, 1^ already been described by Leibnitz in his Frotegsea. It de- rived its name from an unfortunate miner, who^ in the year 1670, ventured alone to explore its recesses in search of ore; and after liaving wandered three days and nights in total solitude and dark- less, at length found his way out in a state of such complete exhaus* Ii9n,.that he died almost immediately. It lies in a bed of transition liiliestone at the village of Bubeland, about two miles below the town of Elbingrode, on the north-east border of the Harta^ and in the 118 MOUTH IN A NEARLY YERTICAIi CLIFF. opuntiy of Blankenburg ; its relative podtipn to the neirest ri^er it ^ow when compared with Scharzfeld, being at an eleYatkHi of about 100 feet above the bed of the JBode ; this, however, ]g suffieient ta assure mSj that it is quite impossible to attribute the pebbks and mud within this cave to any floods of that river, which could not fise ten feet without destroying the adjacent village of Subeland* Above ibis village is seen the present entrance of the cave, in a nearly p^« pendicular cliff, which forms the left side of a deep gorg^ throu^ MTihich the river runs, and whidi is similar to that through wiiich the Avon passes at Clifton. ^See Plate XV. i..) The breadth €i tim gorge varies &am 100 to 300 feet, its d^th is about 150; the rodks 0n both sides, of it are neady poecipitous. in the drawing the scale is ftlsified as to breadth, far the sake of getting »room^. The present entrance (see Plate XV.) is by the aperture A^into a low flat cavan, ISfset broadband five feet high ; the outer ^ctiemity of which is in the truncated face of the cli£^ whilst within, it desoends rapidly to the broad and lofty chamber b. The form of this chamber is irregularly oblong, varying from SO to 50 feet in diameter, and from 10 to 20 in height, and affording some of the most grand and picturesque features of cave scenery. The floor of this cave resembles in all its circumstances that of the great cave at Scharzfeld, vridi the addition of several large masses of rock (see o, o) lliat havi^ ftHen * This gorge is aimply a valley of denudation, produced (like hundreds ivhlch I could mention in compact limestone countHes) by -die fdroe of the dilurian wiaferk TM dotted line n (Plate XV.) represents the mannerin vhic^i, die two sides were .prd)ahl^ connected before the excavation of the gorge, and m the probable continuity of the pre- sent mouth of the cave a to the then esdetii^ surftce. As I shall hereafter ioiUidfo the evidence geology affords of the formation of such valleys by the diluvian wateppi^Xiit prt» sent beg those of my readers to whom tiiiiii subject is new to allow die &ct to be assumed in the case immediately before us. BONES CRUSHED AND POU)^ED BY LARGE PEBBLES. 119 from the roof, and stand high above the Surface of the mud and l^oken stdagmite, which is represented as restored at c. Frmnthe great cave b, we descend by the passage d to the hollow vault e, the lower half ci which contains beneath a thick crust of stalagmite, an aecnmulation of several feet of mud or sand mixed with bones^ and eKtremely large pebbles of transition limestone ; the mud and peb- bles have been separated from each other^ and drifted to different pinrts of this vault. The bones which lie in the mud and sand are not much brokeni and about 80 years ago some very entire ones were extracted from it, and sent to the Museum at Brunswick ; but those which occur among the pebbles are more than usually fractured, and some ci them stamped or pounded, as if in a mortar, into hundreds of small splinters, which adhere by stalagmite to the sur&ce of 8<»ne of the largest pebbles : none of them, however, have lost their angles^ oar are in any way rounded ; but they are simply broken or crushed wl^ in juxtar-position to the heavy pebbles, which are more abun- dant and larger here than in any other part of this, or indeed of any cavern I have yet visited. It foUows from these facts, that the pebbles could not have received iheir actual state of perfbct roundness by violent agitation of water within the cave itself, as in this ease the bones also would either have be^i reduced to pebbles, or totally destroyed; they were probably, therefore^ rounded before they reached their pre- sent jdace^ being dmved from the limestone rocks of the adjacent country, and drifted in by the mouthA and its prolongative m, whikt tlvp valley x was in the act of being excavated. Thus introduced, tiitfy might have passed downwards amposs ihe cavern b to the vault B| 120 INNEB PARTS OF BAUMANS HOHLR where the rock f would form an impediment to their furthev progress ; many bones that lay in the great cave b would pass fi»u ward with these pebbles into e, and others may have already been laid there ; in either case, a rapid movement of the large pebbles must have been necessary to crush to pieces the large and strong bones, whose sharp and angular splinters now adhere to them^ Their state again is totally different firom that of the splinters in the den at Eirkdale, which latter are as obviously the eflfect of fracture by the hyaenas' teeth, as the former are of a violently crushing blow, imparted by a heavy mass of stone. These splinters, as well as the less injured bones that lie among the pebbles, are held together by stalagmite, by which they adhere to, and form with the pebbles a strong breccia ; their preservation from decay is complete^ and their colour that of natural bone, or light cream colour. Within the vault e, the rock f rises almost suddenly about SO feet, and must be crossed by ladders ; on the further side of it, we dejscend again a considerable distance by a lofty and rugged aperture a, to the lower cavern h, from the roof and sides of which there ascend other passages resembling k, which I did not explore, but of which, and indeed of the whole cavern, a ground plan is given by Leibnitz, in his Frotogasa, Plate I. By some of these passages, the pebbles may have come in which we find below, in the cavern h. This cavern has, from its position in the inmost recesses, and its difficulty of access, been not much disturbed, and has several off- shoots, the contents of which are still glazed over with a corust of virgin stalagmite : in others, the stalagmite has been broken through as at I ; and artificial vaults, like those at Scharzfeld, have been dug CONCLUSIONS AS TO BAUMANS HOHLE. CAVE OP BIELS HOHLE. 121 some feet into the subjacent mass of mud, which is also loaded with teeth, bones, and pebbles, but not with such large pebbles, or in such unusual quantity as in the vault e. The roof and sides of the artificial cave i have bones adhering to them, being in fact composed of a breccia of bones and agglutinated mud ; but in none of the natural chambers do we find bones adhering to the side and roof above the surface of the mud and stalagmite. AU these circumstances are corroborative of the hypothesis I am endeavouring to establish. First, That the agent, by which the mud and pebbles were introduced, was the same diluvial waters, which extirpated the animals that had antecedently inhabited the cave. Secondly, That this diluvial detritus was not introduced at different intervals by the action of rivers, or land-floods, but was by one single operation superadded to the bones already existing in the dens. Thirdly, Tliat the period of its introduction is that from which we must begin to date the formation of the superficial crust of stalagmite, by which these diluvian and antediluvian records have been sealed lip, and maintained in such high preservation to the present hour. CAVE OF BIELS ItOHLE. This cavern is said to have derived its name from a heathen temple that formerly stood on the edge of the cliff immediately above it, and of which some traces still exist : its position is at the distance of but a few hundred yards &om the Baumans Hohle, last described ; and at nearly the same elevation in the cli^ on the op- R ^^ 122 CAVE OF BIELS HOHLE— CONTAINS NO BONES. STALAGMITE. posite side of the gorge, e, and on the right bank of the Bode river. (See Plate XVI.) No bones have as yet been discovered in it, nor does it contain any such lofty and broad chambers, as those at Scharz- feld, and Baumans Hohle: it is composed of a succession of cavernous vaults, ascending and descending irregularly in the transition lime^ stone, and communicating with, and intersected by, other similar tubes, which traverse the body of the rock in various directions (see Plate XVI. c. c. c.) It is remarkable for the beauty of the stalactite that hangs from its roof, and the quantity of stalagmite that forms an universal cover of considerable thickness over its floor; but it has not as yet been discovered to contain bones. In passing through it, we are obliged to ascend by ladders a succession of rocky projections or pinnacles (see Plate XVI. d. d. d.), between which we descend into as many intervening hollows or basins of unequal size and height, b. b. b.; and having entered by the small hole a in the cliffy overhanging the Eiver Bode, we come out by an artificial hole in the same cliff, at a small distance from the former. Other cavities of the same kind rise probably to the surface of the land by the tubes c. c. c, and are choked up by diluvium. The dotted lines F. a. represent the restoration of the rock and of the tube a to the state in which they probably existed before the excavation of the gorge E. This cave appears to be one of those which has never been inhabited as a den by wild beasts, as had it been so, it is probable some traces of bones would have been found in the excavations which have been dug in its floor, for the purpose of making an easy path for visitors, that crowd to see the beautv of its stalactite. To MUD AND SAND IN ITS CAVITIES AND ON ITS PINNACLES. 123 myself, these excavations afforded matter of much higher interest, as they enabled me to identify beneath the crusts of stalagmite h. h. the same bed of diluvial mud i. i., which I had already seen at Baumans Hohle, and Scharzfeld, and Theux, and in the caves of England, and alternating also as it does at Plymouth, with thin beds of blue clay, and coarse loose sand, mixed abundantly with small fragments of greywacke slate and clay slate. I was told, though I did not see them, that it sometimes contains pebbles. It is remarkable, that this diluvium is accumulated on the top of the pinnacles d. d. d., in nearly as great quantity as in the intermediate basins b. b. b. ; and here again, we have another analogy to the caves at Plymouth, viz. that wherever there was a ledge, or shelf, or basin, however minute, whereon there was space enough for the smallest deposit to take place, from a mass of water loaded with mud, and sand, there these materials have found a lodgment, and have ever since re- mained undisturbed, under a gradually accumulating crust of stalag- mite. The single post-diluvian crust h. h. is the only one that appears both in the basins and on the pinnacles : it is spread on the upper sur&ce only of the diluvial sediment i. i. ; and in no case has it been found to alternate with the mud, or sand, or clay, of which this sediment is composed. I was unable to ascertain, whether or not there be (as at Eirkdale), a subjacent crust of stalagmite, accu- mulated on the native rock beneath, before the introduction of the mud* On the surface of the upper stalagmite there is a quantity of mould, which has been brought in by the present guide from the adjacent fields for the purpose of making a path in the interior of the cave. r2 124 CAVES IN FRANCONIA— POSITION OF THE DISTRICT. CAVES IN FEANCONIA. Having thus far ascertained, by careful examination of the most important caverns in the Hartz, that there exists no discrepancy, or rather a complete analogy in all their phenomena to those of the caves in England, allowing as much as is due to the different habits of the animals whose remains we find in them respectively, my next attention was directed to the no less celebrated assemblage of caverns in Franconia, situated in the district round Muggendorf, in the Upper Palatinate, about SO miles N. E. of Nurenberg, in the direction of Bareuth, and nearly in a central point between the three towns of Nurenberg, Bareuth, and Bamberg, (see Map, at Plate XIX.) The position of this district is at one of the great water heads of central Europe, from which the streams descend on one side southwards, by the Naab and Danube, to the Black Sea, and on the other, by the Mayn and Bhine, to the German Ocean. It is composed of an assemblage of limestone beds, corresponding with the lias, oolite, green sand, and chalk formations of England, and with the Jura and Alpine limestones of the Continent ; and forms the im- portant link by which the Jura chain, and its continuations in the Bough or Swabian Alps, are connected with the same formations in the north of Germany, where they are designated by the Wemerian appellation of first and second floetz limestone, and Muschel kalk. The limestone of the immediate vicinity of Muggendorf has been^ {torn its cavernous nature, locally designated by the name of Hohlen PRESENT MOUTHS NOT THE ORIGINAL ONES. 125 kalk (Hole limestone) ; and it seems more nearly allied to the calca- reous portions of our green sand formation than to any other strata of the English series ; but differs from them in aspect, in consequence of its containing a large admixture of magnesia, and very few organic remains. This district is at present for the most part cultivated, and without any other beasts of prey than foxes and a few wolves ; but there appears to have been a time when its savage population was prodi- giously great, and the bones of thousands of gigantic bears, and other wild beasts, which once swarmed in the caverns, with which its hills are perforated, still remain to attest their antediluvian dominion over it. Though at an high elevation, this district cannot be said to be mountainous; its valleys indeed are flanked by precipitous crags, which, when seen from below, have all the ruggedness and picturesque form of Alpine scenery ; but they are narrow, and not deep, rarely exceeding SCO feet, and are simply valleys of denudation, excavated by the diluvian waters on the surface of an elevated calcareous plAin, which was the scene on which the bears and hyaenas that are entombed in the recesses of its caverns ranged unmolested by the approach of man. The entrance to the cavema at that time would have been by apertures on the siuface of this plain, like that described as now existing at Scharzfeld, and of which some are found still open in the more elevated parts of this neighbourhood ; and it seems to have been by these original apertures and fissures rising to the level sur&ce of the main table-land^ rather than by the present mouths in the vertical &ce of the cliffi, that the pebbles, and probably great part of the mud that occurs vdthin the caves^ found their 126 MOUTHS IN THE FACE OF VERTICAL CLIFFS. admission: these present mouths must have formed part of the interior of the caverns, before the matter which once filled the valleys had been swept away. When viewed on a correct map (see Plate XIX.), or looked at from the simimit of a distant hiU, these valleys appear but as open gutters on the surface of a meadow, falling into a main gutter, by which the whole of their waters are carried off, in the same manner as the streams of the Esbach, the Weissent, and others pass off by the main valley of Muggendorf The manner in which the present mouths of the caverns appear in the cliffs that flank these valleys will at once be understood by referring to Plate XVIII., c. e. i. where three of them are represented in the cliffs that flank the valley of the Esbach, near the castle of Babenstein, and to the map at Plate XIX., in which the place of each cavern is correctly marked, and a view given of the mouth of the cave of Gailenreuth. •From these preliminary observations on the district, I proceed to describe in detail a few of the most important caverns which it contains. I shall select five, and treat of them in the following order ; first, Forster's Hohle ; second, Kabenstein ; third, Zahuloch i fourth, Gailenreuth ; fifth, Kiihloch. > l.~FORSTER'S HOHLE. This cave is situated near the village of Weischenfeld, in the steep and rocky slope that forms the right flank of the valley of the Zeubach. It was not till within these few vears that it attracted FORSTER'S HOHLE. BEAUTY OF ITS STALAGMITE. 127 any attention, or was indeed accessible without great difficulty, its only opening • having been a hole in the roof, through which it was necessary to be let down by ropes or a long ladder. More recently a lateral adit had been driven into it by an innkeeper named Forster, nearly on the level of the floor, and forms the present entrance. This cave is one of the most remarkable I have ever seen, for the beauty of its roof, and perfection of its stalagmite ; but contains no other bones than a few of dogs and modern animals, which have recently been placed in it as appropriate furniture. Its height varies fh)m 10 to SO feet ; its breadth where widest being about 80. Its floor is no where quite level, and the subjacent rock is buried under a deep bed of diluvial mud, over which is superinduced a more than usually thick covering of stalagmite. The form of this stalag- mite is particularly striking in the side vaults that descend in various directions into the main chamber, being inclined at an angle of about 45®, and having the lower half of their area filled also with mud ; Dn the surface of which entire bridges of thick stalagmite are formed across from side to side, presenting the varied features and irregular undulations of large and beautiful cascades, suddenly congealed into a mass of transparent alabaster : large waving streams oif this orna- mental substance are seen descending into the main chamber from all the lateral avenues by which it is encircled, and contributing, as it were, to swell the stalagmitic lake that occupies its centre. The roof also of the main chamber, as well as of its side aisles, is in all parts broken into, and clustered over with irregularly grotesque forms of exquisite beauty, rivalling the richest combinations of the 128 FRETTED ROOF. MUD ON THE FLOOR. most complicated gothic fret-work, and far surpassing them in the wild and irregular varieties in which its masses descend^ like inverted pinnacles, to meet the icy lake of stalagmite that covers the floor. The quantity of stalactite dependant from this roof is comparatively small ; and though extremely beautiful, it forms a subordinate feature only in this most magnificent vault ; the peculiar beauty of which consists in the deep carious cavities into which its entire surface has been corroded, and the endless succession of sharp points and ridges, and irregularly projecting partitions, that stand in high relief between these cavities, and descend many feet, suspended almost by nothing, into the body of the cavern. With respect to the muddy sediment that occurs below the stalagmitic floor, it remains only to observe, that its thickness has not been ascertained, though several holes have been dug in it to the depth of three or four feet: it contains numerous angular fragments of Umestone, but I could find no pebbles. I have already stated that there are no bones : it probabfy was inaccessible, or at least not tenanted at the period when the beaiB were in occupation of this coimtry. By the holes dug into this mud it appears that there is no trace of any other crust, or even of a film of stalagmite alternating with it, so as to lead us to infer that it was not deposited at one and the same period, and by the same inundation that introduced a similar sediment into all the other caves of which I have been speaking. Whether there be any under crust of antediluvian stalagmite between it and the subjacent rock, I could not ascertain. There is not a particle of mud, or even of dust, above the surface of the upper crust of stalagmite, or interposed between its component 130 CAVE OF ZAHNLOCft^rrS POSITION HIGH. bones of sheep, dogs, foxes, and some smaller animals. These vrere not invested with stalagmite, and were in the same state with the recent bones discovered in the modern fissure at Duncombe Park. «• CAVE OF ZAHNLOCH. The next cave I propose to speak of is that of ZahnJoeh (or the Hole of Teeth), so called from the abundance of Ibssil teeth that have been extracted from it, and being situated about two miles on the south-east of Bi^benstein* Its position is not like that of the other caverns I have to describe in this neighbourhood, in a cliff that flanks some one or other of the valleys, but near the summit of a hill called Hohen Mirschfeld, which rises above the main table- land, and forms one *of the most elevated points of tlm district^ being about 600 feet above the valley of Muggendorf. (See Plate XIX.) The entrance of this cave is a low oven*-shaped aperture in a very small rock, that projects through the grass in the north slope, of a green and naked hilL It is visible at a considerable distaffic^ and must have attracted notice firom^ 'the earliest times: it 1$ alxnit ten feet broad, and four feet high, and leads immediately into an ex^ensff e crypt-like diamber, about 60 :feet in length, and varying fyixtn:^ SO to 40 feet in breadth^ but so low that there are few parts in which it is posdble to stand upright From the edge of this l^^ger diamber there branch off several smaller imdet vaultings, and on one «dte of it is a dftvem the height of which is more considerable than that of the mam chamber, >and in the middle of which stands a large in^ ANCIENT AND MODERN BONES IN IT. SEPULCHRAL URN. 181 sulated block of stone, rising about six feet above the present floor^ and remarkable for having its sur&ce smoothed over (ios if it had been polished), in a way which the natural rock never presents. There is much dripping of water, but very little stalactite hanging from the roof and sides of any of these chambeins, and probably the floor also has never been invested with much stalagmite. At present it is strewed over, to the depth of several feet, with a mass of brown loam, mixed with numerous pebbles and angular fragments of lime- iltone, with teeth also, and fragments of bones of bears, and other extinct animals, and with recent bones of hares, foxes, dogs, and sheep : I found also a fi^agment of a rude sepulchral um^ but could discover few traces only of black earth. The average depth of this loam must be four or five feet : the entire bulk of it has been again and again dug over in search of teeth and bones, of which it still contains considerable quantities. Even the smaller under vaultings have been ransacked to their extremities ; so that there is no possibility of seeing in its natural state any part of this mixed mass, which now covers the floor. Still all its phenomena, allowing for the dis- turbances that have taken place by digging, are condstent in every respect with those of the other adjacent caverns : the introduction g£ the mud and pebbles may be referred^ as usual, to diluvial agency; some of the angular fragments may have been washed in others ; have fellen from the roof; the teeth and bones of the extinct animals may be referred to the wild beasts that inhabited the cave before the in- troduction of the mud, and the sepulchral urn to the use that has since been made of it for the reception of human remains ; whilst the bones of hares, foxes^ dogs, and sheep, are derived from animals that s2 182 BLOCK OF STONE POLISHED BY BEARS. may at any time have entered spontaneously, or been dragged into it, the mouth being so large, and having no appearance of ever having been shut up. Its most remarkable phenomenon is the polished surface of the great insulated block of stone, which stands like a sarcophagus in the middle of the side chamber. Not being aware of it at the time I was there, I did not observe this circumstance myself, but Bosenmuller states, and Goldfuss repeats it, that the surface of this block is all over smooth, as if polished (glatt wie polirt) in a manner which must be attributed to some cause external to the rock itself, and which its place and circumstances seem to induce us to refer to no other than friction from the skin and paws of the antediluvian bears*. (Goldfuss Taschenbuch, p. ISO.) * It is only necessary to examine the habits of modem bears as delineated after nature in Ridinger*s excellent engravings of wild animals, or to have seen the agility and apparent delight with which the bears in the Jardin du Roi at Paris climb up a tree placed for this purpose in their open den, to feel assured that if the habits of antediluvian bears were at all like those of existing species, such a pedestal as that we are speaking of would have been subjected to continual friction from the ascending and descending of these animals, whilst they inhabited the den : see Ridinger's Plates, No. 81, where he re- presents the interior of a den of bears, in which most of them are climbing up rocks, and one is in the very act of mounting a pedestal similar to that in Zahnloch. The numbers also in which he represents them as herded together (seven or eight in the same cave), show them to be gregarious, and illustrate the otherwise almost inexplicable fact of the remains of so many hundred bears being assembled together in four or five such cavcHSf a3 those of Scharzfeld, Baumans Hohle, Zahnloch, Grailenreuth, and Kuhloch. CAVE OF GAILENBEUTH. POSITION OF ITS MOUTH. 188 CAVE OF GAILENREUTH. I have already mentioned this cave, as the most remarkable in the country we are now speaking of, for the quantity and high state of perfection of the bones that have been extracted from it, and for the descriptions that have been given of them by Esper, Rosenmuller, and other writers. I had visited it in 1816 with less attention to its minute details, and had then overlooked the circumstance of the bed of mud and pebbles, which I now find to be mixed with the bones, and placed between the stalagmitic crust and native rock, which forms the actual floor of the cavern ; in other respects the drawing I have given in my first edition in the Phil. Trans. 1822, differs not materially from that which I have now substituted for it at Plate XVII. Its mouth is situated in a perpendicular rock, in the highest part of the cliffs which form the left side of the valley of the Weissent River, at an elevation of more than 300 feet above its bed. (Siee Plate XIX. m the comer of which is a view of it, copied from a print in Espcr.) This valley being, as I before stated, simply a valley of denudation, the present entrance could not have been the original one, as it existed before the excavation of the valley ; we now enter by an aperture about seven feet high and twelve feet broad in the cliff just men- tioned, and close to it observe an open fissure, rising from the cave toward the table land immediately above; this fissure is also re- presented in the view of the mouth of the cave I have just referred to, and by it, or by other similar fissures, the mud and pebbles we shall 184 INNER CHAMBERS. BONES, PEBBLES, AND LOAM. find within were possibly introduced. The form and ccmnexions of the cave will be best understood by referring to the drawing at Plate XVII. It consists principally of two large chambers^ b and r» varying in breadth from ten to thirty feet, and in height from three to twenty feet: the roof is in most parts abundantly hung^th stalactite; and in the first icbam!>er^ b, the floor is nearly icovei^ed ynQi stalagmite^ c, piled in irregular Thamillated heaps, one of which in ttie- centre, is accumulated into a large pillar uniting the roof to the floofr ^ From b we descend hy ladders to ^ second chamber,^ f, the floor of which also appears to hwire:h!een once overspread wijth ^ similar gtalagmitic crust: this, howevei^'haii been nearly destroyed by holes dug throu^ it| in search of the prodigi^ua quantities of bone^ that lie beneath- The cave^ F, is copneeted by a low and narrow passage, m, with a smalkt eavem^ N, at the bottom of whidi is a nearly circular hole, k^ descending like a well about twenty-five feet» and from three to four feet in disineter, into which you let yduradf down, as in climbing a chimney^ by sup* porting the handSy feet, and back against the opposite sidei. In descending this hole» we find its drcmmference to be for the moft part composed of a breccia of bones, pebbles, and loam, cemented by ttalag* mite : on one aide of it is a lateral cavity, l, w)iich is entirely artifidalt and is the spot firom which the most perfect skulls and bone« have been extracted in the greatest abundance ; the lowest cavity, cb^ ia also entirely surrounded with the breccia aboye described ; how mudb deeper, or how widely it may extend, has not yet been ascertained* The roof and the sides of the artificial cavities^ k and i^ having been dug in the breccia^ are crowded with teeth and bones ; but tl^se latter do not occur in the roof or sides of any of the upper or natural FLOOR OF fIBST CHAMBER. 185 chambers above the level of the stalagmitic cntat that covers their floor : this observation, as I have before mentioned, applies equally to all the other caverns I have been describing, and is important on account of the erroneous statements and opinions which exist on this subject. The floor of the first chamber b has been stated to be at this time almost entirely covered with a crust of stalagmite ; on the sur&ee of this crust is a quantity of blackish mould, mixed with ashes and charcpal : the latter being derived from fires that are firequently made to illumiseate the cave ; the former is vegetable mould, which has been brought in from the adjacent land, possibly for the purpose of making a path over the slippery stalagmite, as has been lately done at Biel's Hole in the Hartz. Through this crust of stalagmite some large holes have been dug resembling that at e, and in these we see a bed of brown diluvial loam and pebbles, mixed with angular fisgments of rock, and with teeth and bones ; but the latter being less abundant here than in the deeper chambers of the cave, the floor has firom this circumstance been for the most part left entire. I could not ascertain the depth of this diluvium ; where I saw it^ it was three or four feet^ but the rodk below was still invisible. The^ bones of bearish tibat lie loosely scattered over the surface of the stalagmite^ and even on the outside of the cave's mouth, are rejected fiiagments that have been dug out firom beneath it, or firom the lower cavities ;' and they are mixed with the rec^it bones of dogs, sheep, fiixei^ &c. that have en^ tered in modem times by the open mouth, a. In the second chamber, c, the diluvium is of the same description as in B, but more abundantiy loaded with bones; for this reason it has been more disturbed, and the crust remains entire only in a few places. Its depth appears to be irregular, and in parts extremely 186 FLOOR OF SECOND CHAMBER- OSSEOUS BRECCIA. great At h a side chamber descends rapidly into the body of the rock, and contains cart-loads of teeth, bones, and pebbles, dispersed through a loose mass of brown diluvial loam, but not united by sti^ lagmite, as in the adjacent cavities, k and l. In these latter they axe firmly cemented together into a compact breccia, and aocumukted in a heap of at least 25 feet in depth, from the top, k, to the bottom, k k. The distribution of the component materials of this breccia is irre- gular : in some parts the earthy matter is wholly wanting and we have simply a congeries of agglutinated bones ; in others, the pebbles abound ; in a third place, one half of the whole mass is kam, and the remainder teeth and bones : at k the top, and k k the bottom of the well, pebbles and bones occur mixed together in the same propchrtiou as in the middle regions of it. The state of preservation of the bones when incrusted in stalagmite, is quite perfect, and the colour yel- lowish white; those extracted from the loose earth in the upper chambers are of a darker hue, and the total decay of some of them seems to have produced a blackish colour in the loam immediately adjacent to them ; but I could no where find the beds entirdiy com- posed of black animal earth described by preceding observers, as oc- curring in this and other caverns. All these phenomena are in perfect harmony with those of the other caverns in Germany and England ; the upper parts of the existing cave, and probably others, which have been cut away by de- nudation, seem to have been the lodging : places of wild beasts, that Uved and died in them in the period preceding' the introduction of the mud and pebbles ; the diluvial waters rushing, as they could not fail to do, into these caverns, would introduce pebbles and mud, and would also drift downwards to their lowest recesses the bones CAVE OF KUHLOCH. PECULIAR CONTENTS. 187 that lay perhaps more eqiiaUy distributed than they are at present. Since this event, the accumuMion of stalagmite on the surface of the mud, and in the interstices of the hoUow masses of bones and peb- bles, is the only geological change that appears to have taken place : the limestone rock of the actual floor rarely projects so as to be visible beneath the false floor of diluvial matter and bones with which it is overspread; in one place where it does so, in the low passage m, it is smooth and highly polished, like the pedestal in Zahnloch ; but whether from the paws of bears, or the hands and knees of post- diluvian visitors, or the united action of both, I will not venture to determine. I could ilot ascertain whether there was any stalagmitic crust below the mud, as in the cave of Eirkdale. CAVE OF KUHLOCH. It now remains only to speak of the cave of Kiihloch^ which is more reniarkable than all the rest, as being the only one I have ever seen, excepting that of Kirkdale, in which the animal remains have escaped disturbance by diluvial action ; and the only one also in which I could find the masses of black animal earth, iKud by other writers to occur so generally, and for which many of them appear to have mistaken the diluvial loam in which the bones are so universally imbedded. The * * . • only thing at all like it, that I could find in any of the other caverns, were fragments of highly decayed bone, which occurred in the loose part of the diluvial sediment in the caves of Scharzfeld, Zahnloch, and Gailenreuth ; but in the cave of Kiihloch it is far otherwise. It is literally true that in this single cavern (the size and proportions of 138 QUANTITY OF BLACK ANQfAL EARTH. which are neaily equai io • thote t£ tibe rateriop of a large' (^todiy titeMi are hundreds of: cari-ldads o£Uadr animal dast entirely ebvei^g^thj^ whole floor, to a depth which must average at least six ftet^ iand w if we multiply this depth by lii^iengfii and brejewLth of th« etiveliA, "vHU be fbimd to exceed 5000 cubic feet. Thewhole of this mass has b6m again and again dug over in search of teeth and bones, wMdi it sCifl contams abundantly, though in broken fragtfefnts. * The state ecies^ or of other lai^ animals. 4. The partial occurrenoe* of these remaini^ in so eomparatlyel}^ small a number of the many caves that lie adjacent to each <)ther, added to the immense quantities in which they are usually crowded together where they exist at all, shows that they were accumulated by some cause independent of the diluvial action that introduced the mud and pebbles; for had they been drifted in together with them, they would probably have been distributed co-extensively witk these latter substances, and in small quantities ; whereas, on the contrary, whilst we find in every cave nearly the same proportion of diluvial loam and pebbles, the occurrence of bones is limited to a small number ; and in these, they are crowded in such enormous quantities, and are attended with such circumstances, as are explicable only on the hypothesis of their having existed there before the introduction of the diluvium ; and in general, the deeper we descend, the more abundantly loaded do we find the lower regions and undervaultings to be, till they are entirely choked up with mud, pebbles, and bones. 5. The mud and pebbles were not introduced at a period anterior to that in which the caves were inhabited; for in this case, they would have fi>und a separate bed at the bottom, beneath the bones, and not have been dispersed so equally as they are amongst them : e. ^/ we find the pebbles occur as abundantly at x the top, as at x. x. the bottom, and at l, the middle region of the great heap that lies piled together to the height of 25 feet in the lowest region of the cave, at GaiknreutL (See Plate XVII.) 6. The angular firagments of lunestone that are found within the 144 ANGULAR FRAGMENTS. STALAGMITE. STATE AND caves may have fallen from the roof either before or since the intrcK duction of the diluvium, according as they are placed below or above the stalagmitic crust that covers its surface; some of them below it may also have been drifted in together with the pebbles. 7. With respect to the stalagmite, though it often occurs trans* fused bodily through the substance of the diluvial sediment, it is never found in continuous strata alternating with other strata of mud, t>i pebbles, but always forming a single crust on the upper sur&ce of the sediment. I could not find in any of the Grerman caves a lower crust of stalagmite formed as at Kirkdale, beneath the mud, on the sur&ce of the subjacent limestone rock ; but from the thickness of the dilu- vium, though it was in many places excavated 6 feet deep, there were so very few points in which it was possible to see the bottom, that at present we are without any evidence as to its existence or otherwise. 8. The diluvium itself is either simply a mass of pebbles, or of loam or sand, or (which is more common) an irregular admixture of aU these three substances, having bones indiscriminately distributed throughout them all ; and in proportion as the mass has been more or less percolated by stalagmitic infiltrations, the bones are either simply embedded in loose earth, or in semi-indurated loam and pebbles, or cemented together with loam and pebbles into a firm osseous breccia, resembUng that found in the fissures of Umestone at Gibraltar, and along the shores and islands of the Mediterranean. Should it be suggested, that this loam or earthy matter may have originated from dust that has fallen firom the decomposition of the roof of the caverns, the improbability of this origin appears firom its non-agreement in chemical composition with the limestone of these ORIGIN OF DILUVIUM. HARMONY OF CAVES AND FISSURES. 145 roofs ; whilst on the other hand, its perfect agreement vsdth the dilu- vial loam that abounds on the surface of the adjacent countries, added to the fact of the materials within the cave being often sorted, or drifted, as if by water into distinct deposits of loam, and Scind, and pebbles ; and the still more irresistible argument, arising from the almost universal presence of the pebbles themselves, renders it im- possible to refer the earthy matter in question to any cause acting exclusively within the interior of the caverns, or indeed to any other origin, than one violent movement of waters over the land without : the effects likely to have been produced by such an inundation on the interior of caverns having communication with the then existing surface, are precisely such as we find to have actually taken place, and to be attended by circumstances, all of which are consistent with the hypothesis of the mud and pebbles having been superinduced upon bones already existing in the caverns, by the waters of a tran- sient deluge. The facts I have enumerated in the above descriptions go to establish a perfect analogy, as far as relates to the loam and pebbles and stalagmitic incrustations in the caves and fissures of G^ermany and England, and lead us to infer an identity in the time and manner in which these earthy deposits were introduced ; and this identity is still further confirmed by the agreement in species, of the animals whose remains we find enveloped by them, both in caves and fissures, as well as in the superficial deposits of similar loam and pebbles on the surface of the adjacent countries ; viz. by the agreement of the animals of the English caves and fissures, not only with each other, but also with those of the diluvial gravel of England, and of the u 146 CAVES, FISSURES, AND GRAVEL PROVE THE SAME DELUGE. greater part of Europe : and in the case of the German caves, by the identity of one of their extinct species of bear with that found in the di- luvial gravel of Upper Austria ; and of the extinct hyaena vsdth that of the gravel at Canstadt, in the valley of the Necker ; at Horden, near Herzberg in the Hartz ; at Eichstadt, in Bavaria ; the Val d*Amo, in Italy ; and Lawford, in Warwickshire. To these may be added the extinct rhinoceros, elephant, and hippopotamus, which are common to gravel beds as well as caves ; and hence it follows, that the period at which the earth was inhabited by aU the animals in question was that immediately antecedent to the formation of those superficial and almost universal deposits of loam and gravel, which it seems impossible to account for unless we ascribe them to a transient deluge, afiecting universally, simultaneously, and at no very distant period, the entire surface of our planet *. * I have much pleasure in referring my readers to two short and excellent papers in the Philosophical Transactions for 1794, Part IL, by the Margrave of Anspach and the ever-memorable John Hunter ; the former describing the caves of Gailenreuth, and the latter their organic remains^ in a manner which cannot fiul to be highly interesting to those who have followed me in my present description of them. The account given by his Serene Highness is accurate and spirited ; and it had not escaped him that the stalagmitic crust of the floor did not reach down to the bottom of the cave, but that there was a collection of what he calls animal rubbish between it and the actual floor of solid rock ; but he overlooks the existence of pebbles, and adopts the two common errors of considering the diluvial loam as animal earth, and stating that the bones are found sticking every where in the sides of the cave, as well as lying on the bottom. I have more than once explained the source of this mistake, and pointed out the limitation within which the assertion is to be received. Mr. Hunter accompanies his description of the bones with some curious speculations on the revolutions which may have affected the earth*s surface, and some general observations on the different state of preservation of fossil animal remains ; and con- cludes, as Cuvier has done since, with regard to the bones in the cave of Gailenreuth JOHN HUNTER ON THE BEARS OF GERMANY. 147 and others, that they have been accumulated in consequence of the cavities having been occupied as a place of retreat, or den of wild beasts during a long series of years — his words are, many thousand years ; but he overrates this period considerably, grounding his opinion on the single fact of the different degrees of preservation of the bones in the same cavern. These, however, are not greater than those which exist in churchyard bones, or a common charnel-house, and may have been produced by the difference of a very few years, or certainly of a few hundred years, in the time of their exposure to de- composing causes at the f»ottom of the cave, before the introduction of the diluvial loam, which has since buried and protected them from any further considerable decay. Mr. Hunter's reasoning would have been correct, had there not existed this difference in the degree of exposure of the bones before and since the introduction of the loam : had he been aware of this fact, he certainly would have seen the force of it, and his expression would probably have been, many hundred years, instead of many thousand. I refer to my note on the cave of Kiihloch, and to my account of Kirkdale, for filrther grounds on which I have founded my opinion as to the chronolo^cal inferences to be derived from the quantity of animal remains accumulated in these caves, and from the state and relative position of their stalagmite and diluvial loam and pebbles. u2 148 BRECCIA IN FISSURES ON THE SOUTH COASTS OF EUROPK OSSEOUS BRECCIA OF GIBRALTAR, NICE, DALMATIA, &c. The close connexion, or rather the identity of circumstances which we have seen to exist with respect to the time and manner in which the bones were introduced both into caverns and fissures, in Germany and England, leads me to think it almost certain, that those fissures also which are found to contain such large quantities of osseous breccia in the limestone rocks of Gibraltar, Antibes, Nice, Cette, Pisa, and Dalmatia, and nimierous other places along the north shores of the Mediterranean and Adriatic, and in the islands of Cerigo, Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily, &c., had become charged with these remains in the same antediluvian period with the caves and fissures I have been describing. M. Fortis, in his account of the breccia of Dalmatia, and some of the islands, says it occurs both in vertical and horizontal cavities of the limestone, and that it is visible in clefts and fissures along the shores, and in caves in the interior of all the islands and coasts of Illyria ; that the bones are usually embedded in a red ochreous cement, dispersed and broken, and that a single skeleton is never found entire. M, Provenpal repeats the same observations in his account of the breccia in the caves and fissures near Nice. M. Chevalier also says of the bones at Gibraltar, that they lie separate one from another, but not rolled, and that the greater part of them appear to have been broken before they were incrusted in their present cement: and M. Cuvier, in his first OSSEOUS BRECCIA OF TWO ERAS. 149 editioD, has given a list of the animals of this breccia ; among which he enumerates the ox, deer, antelope, sheep, rabbits, water-rats, mice, horse, ass, snakes, birds, and land-shells. He states, also, that the greater number of them decidedly agree with existing species, and supposes them to have fallen into the fissures in the period succeeding the last retreat of the waters. With respect to some of these bones, it is probable that this hypothesis is correct, and that here, as well as in England, there may exist, in addition to the breccia containing bones of antediluvian origin, other more recent deposits, derived from animals which are continually falling into the comparatively few fissures which are still open, as at Buncombe Park ; but with regard to others, viz. to those which occur in fissures that are closed up, as at Gibraltar, to the very surface of the soil, the case is different, and their origin clearly antediluvian. In my first paper on Kirkdale I had ventured to differ from M. Cuvier on this subject, judging from the apparent agreement in species, ' of many of the graminivorous animals of the osseous breccia with those found in the antediluvian cave at Kirkdale, and in the diluvial gravel- beds of England, and had suggested that the discovery in the Medi- terranean breccia of any of the extinct species of animals we find in the caves, or in diluvian gravel, would establish the higher antiquity I am contending for. Being at Paris in October 1822, I had the satisfaction to be informed by M. Cuvier, that he has lately foimd the tusks of the extinct Hon or tiger in the breccia of Nice, and that he has added other animals belonging to species now unknown, to the list he had before given. Mr. Pentland also has recently dis- covered the tooth of the same extinct tiger in the breccia of Antibes, 150 LOAM AND PEBBLES IN OSSEOUS BRECCLV.. and has found in the cabinet of Professor Targioni, at Florence, the femur of a bear from the osseous breccia of Pisa, and has been informed that other similar bones occur in the neighbourhood of Sienna. I was still further gratified by M. Cuvier's showing me specimens fiom several of the places above enumerated, many of which contained rolled pebbles, and all of them a large proportion of indurated earthy loam, through which, as their matnx, the teeth and fragments of bones are disseminated in a manner no way different from that in which they occur in the indurated loam at Plymouth and in the caves of Germany. This loam is described in many accounts of the osseous breccia, as being ochreous stalactite, but this description is incorrect ; it is a mass of earthy loam, differing only in colour from that which fills the caves and fissures, and composes the superficial diluvial loam in Grermany ; and its consoUdated state arises from the stalagmitic infiltrations that have percolated its pores, and formed thin veins and linings of calc sinter in the innumerable crevices and small cellular cavities with which it is interspersed. This is precisely the state of much of the loam in the caves of Germany ; and in both cases the admixture of pebbles with angular fi*agments of limestone, and the irregular manner in which the bones, though evidently not rolled, are broken and crowded together in confused heaps, seem to indicate that, as I have suggested in my explanation of the bones and breccia at Plymouth, they have been moved within the cave or fissure by water, to a small distance only from the spot where they fell in and died, and simply broken by this removal^ but neither rounded or reduced to pebbles. The same waters which would thus drift them into irregular heaps in the bottom of the caves or fissures ANGULAR FRAGMENTS, WHY MORE ABUNDANT IN CAVES. 151 may also have introduced the loam and pebbles through which they are in each case dispersed. The chief differences with regard to the Mediterranean breccia seem to consist, 1st. in the loam being red, instead of its more usual colour, brown ; an accident which may be explained by the hypothesis of its being diluvial detritus, derived from strata of a red colour, and which is rendered probable by the fact mentioned by Major Imrie, of there being, on the summit of the rock of Gibraltar, superficial deposits of a similar red earth, which from his description are clearly diluvial. 2d. In the proportion of angular fragments of stone being greater in this breccia than in that from the caverns : this may be referred to their having fallen in greater abundance from the sides of the fissures (whilst they were yet open), than from the roof of close caverns, in consequence of the greater exposure of the fonner to the decomposing influence of the atmo- sphere ; and this hypothesis is corroborated by the fact spoken of by Mr. Allan, in his excellent Paper on the Geology of Nice (Edin. Phil. Trans. voL viii. part 2), that the naked surfaces of the limestone rocks near Nice (which are of the same kind with that of Gibraltar), are broken and shattered into angular fragments, which lie on the surface of the mountains, and are mentioned by Saussure under the name of " br6che en place *.'' Sd. A third point wherein the breccia we are considering differs from that of the caverns is, that it contains land-shells. These may be considered as having fallen in from the sides of the fissures, together with the animals and the angular fragments last spoken of; whilst the depth and covered state of the * My own observation has presented to me many similar occurrences of loose naked angular fragments on the surface of many other compact limestone rocks. 152 ANIMALS, WHY GRAMINIVOROUS. caves would allow no such circumstance to have occurred, in them. 4th. A fourth difference arises from the remains being chiefly those of graminivorous animals ; and this is consistent with the circumstance I mentioned when speaking of the recent bones in Buncombe Park, that such animals are more liable than beasts of prey to fall into open fissures, from their constant habit of traversing the surface in the act of cropping the grass which forms their food. All these difi^rences may be explained on the theory I am maintaining, that the bones in the osseous breccia are of antediluvian origin, and coeval with the remains we find in the caves and fissures of Germany and England. M. De Luc has expressed precisely the same opinion at the con- clusion of his description of the bones, earth, and breccia contained in the caverns of the Hartz. " L'aspect de la couche d'ou Ton tire ces OS, ne permet pas de douter de leur origine ; eUe est la m6me que celle des os de Dalmatic et de Oibralter, ainsi que de tous les autres corps terrestres ensevelis dans les couches de nos continens.*' By which latter he means the bones of elephant, rhinoceros, &c. that occur so universally in the diluvium. — ^De Luc's Lettres Phys. et Mor. vol. iv. p. 90. Mr. Allan, in his paper just quoted, designates the earthy matrix of these bones as " Red indurated clay ;" and adds also, that " with the bones are rounded pebbles of limestone."' He also states his opinion, that the bones have been deposited in two distinct eras, which, I have no doubt, will on explanation turn out to be the same antediluvian and postdiluvian periods to which I have assigned respectively the introduction of different bones into the fissures of Plymouth and Dun- combe Park. ^ On the castle rock at Nice," says he, " the bones occur BONES IN FISSUBES AND CAVES COEVAL— MAJOR IMRIE. 158 in two distinct states, one forming a very hard indurated breoday the cement of which varies from a brown colour to ahnost black ; in the other, they are loose^ or feebly agglutinated, by means of calcareous infiltrations, with fragments of limestone and sea shells *." He adds, there appear to be several fissures, some containing a few dispersed fragments of bone, and others of loose earth and stones. All these arguments are still further corroborated by the state of preservation of the Gibraltar bones, being exactly that of the bears bones, which occur in the osseous breccia of the caves of Gailenreuth, &c. ; they are white, dry, and adherent to the tongue, difierent firom and indicating a much higher antiquity than the postdiluvian bones that occur above the stalagmite crust within the German caves, or in the open fissure at Duncombe Park. But the fact of the breccia of Gibraltar (and by consequence those of Nice, Cette, Dalmatia, and the other places before enumerated) being coeval %vith that of the caverns we have been describing, is, I think, established beyond all doubt by the minute and careful account we have of it in Major Inuie's Mineralogical Description of Gibraltar, in the 4th vol. of the Transactions of the Boyal Society of Edinburgh, which is so important, that I shall here extract those parts of it which bear on the point before us : — << The insulated mountain, or rock of Gibraltar,'' says he, ^ is composed of compact limestone^ rising at its greatest elevation 1439 feet above the level of the sea, being about three miles long, and three quarters of a mile broad in its widest part, * This occurrence of marine shells in the looser variety of breccia may possibly be attributed to their haying been collected by sea birds or by men, as in the case of the cave of Paviland. 154 MAJOR IMRIE'S ACCOUNT OF GIBRALTAR. and bounded for the most part by rugged slopes, or by predpioes ; like other compact Umestones, it is perforated by caverns of vast extent, and also by vertical fissures. The largest cavern (St. Michael's) is lOQO feet above the sea, and consists of a long series of caves, of difficult access, which have been penetrated to the distance of SOO feet from the first cavern, and extend still further, and abound mth stalactites. In this cave no bones have yet been noticed, but in the perpendicular fissures of the rock, and in some of the caverns (all of which a£K>rd evident proofs of their former communication with the surface) a calcareous concretion is found of a reddish brown fer- ruginous colour, with an earthy fracture and considerable induration, inclosing the bones of various animals; these bones are of various sizes, and lie in all directions, intermixed with shells of land snails, fi-agments of the calcareous rock, and particles of spar. Bones com- bined in similar concretions are found also in Dalmatia, the islands of Cherso, and Ossero, and have been described by Fortis ; and by his account it appears, that with regard to situation, composition and colour, they are perfectly similar to those found at Gibraltar, and occur in fissures and caves of the same species of limestone. I have traced (says Major Imrie) in Gibraltar this concretion firom the lowest part of a deep perpendicular fissure up to the sur&ce of the mountain ; as it approached the surface, it became less firmly combined, and when it had no covering of the calcareous rock, a small degree of adhesion only remained. ^< At Bosia Bay, on the west-side of Gibraltar, this concretion is found in what has evidently been a cavern originally formed by huge unshapely masses of rock« which have tumbled in together. The BONES NOT IN THE SOLID ROCK— RECENT BIRDS' BONES. 155 fissure, or cavern, formed by the disruption and subsidence of these masses, has been evidently filled up with this concretion, and is now exposed to full view, by the outward mass having dropped down, in consequence of the encroachments of the sea. It is to this spot that strangers are generally led to examine the phenomenon ; and the composition having here attained to its greatest degree of hardness and solidity, the hasty observer seeing the bones inclosed in what has so little the appearance of having been a vacuity, examines no ftirther, but immediately adopts the idea, of their being incased in solid rock. The communication from the former chasm, to the surface from which it has received the materials of the concretion, is still to be traced in the face of the rock, but its opening is, at present, covered by the base of the line- wall of the garrison. Here bones, apparently human*, are scattered among others of various kinds and sizes, even down to the smallest bones of birds. " At the north extremity of the mountain, the concretion is ge- nerally found in perpendicular fissures ; the miners there employed upon the fortifications, in excavating one of those fissures, found at a great depth firom the surface two skulls (not human.) This concre- tion varies in its composition, according to the situation where it is found. At the extremity of Princes Lines, high in the rock which looks towards Spain, it is found to consist only of a reddish calcareous earth, and the bones of small birds, cemented thereby. The rock around this spot is inhabited by a number of hawks, that in the breeding season nestle here and rear their young ; the bones in this * This error^ as to the existence of human bones in this brecda, has been since corrected. x 2 156 BRECCIA OF TWO ERAS— RED DILUVIAL LOAM AND concretion are probably the remains of the food of those birds. At the base of the rock below Kings Lines, the concretion consists of pebbles of the prevailing calcareous rock. In this concretion, at a considerable depth under the surface, was found part of a green glass bottle." The above extracts need but little comment. The birds' bones at the rock of Princes Lines, and the glass bottle buried under pebbles at the base of Kings Lines, show that there is still going on daily a formation of postdiluvian breccia ; whilst the whole description of the earthy contents of the caves and fissures, and of the manner in which they are filled, is so entirely Uke that I have given of the caves and fissures of Germany and England, that it seems to me impossible to hesitate in admitting the identity of their origin. Sut the proof (satisfactory as it is) does not stop here ; I would attribute, in this case, as in the caves at Plymouth, the introduction of the loam and pebbles to diluvial action superinduced upon bones and angular frag- ments, that had fallen into the cavities whilst yet open, in the period preceding the last general inundation of the earth ; and in the paper I have just quoted. Major Imrie has supplied one of the most neat and convincing proofs I ever met with, that tlys same diluvial action has been exerted on the summit of the very mountain whose fissures I am contending have been filled by it. Describing the upper surface of this mountain, he says, ^ The uncovered parts of the rock expose to the eye a phenomenon worthy of some attention, as it tends clearly to demonstrate, that however high the sur&ce of this rock may now be elevated above the level of the sea, it has once been the bed of agitated waters. This phenomenon is to be observed in many part3 PEBBLES ON THE SUMMIT OF THE BOCK OF 6IBBALTAR. 157 of the rock ; it consists of pot-like holes of various sizes, hollowed out of the solid rock, and formed apparently by the attrition of gravel or pebbles, set in motion by the rapidity of rivers or currents in the sea. One of those which had recently been laid open I examined with at- tention, and found it to be five feet deep, and three in diameter ; the edge of its mouth rounded off, as if by art, and its sides and bottom retaining a considerable degree of polish. From its mouth, for three and a half feet down, it was fiUed with a red argillaceous earthy thinly mixed with minute parts of transparent quartz crystals; the remaining foot and a half, to the bottom, contained an aggr^ate of water-worn stones, which were from the size of a goose's egg to that of a small walnut, and consisted of red jaspers, yellowish white flints, white quartz, and bluish white agates, firmly combined by a yellowish brown stalactitical calcareous spar. In this breccia I could not discover any fragment of the mountain rock, or any other calcareous matter, ex- cept the cement with which it was combined. This pot is 940 feet above the level of the sea." Now, comparing these facts with the phenomena he had before described, we see that the red earth here mentioned is the very sub- stance which, in the caves and fissures immediately below, forms the dUuvial matrix in which the bones are embedded, and together with which they have been united by stalagmitic infiltrations into a mass of solid osseous breccia ; and the pebbles of quartz, agate, jasper, &c. lodged with this red earth on the summit of an insulated, lofty, and precipitous mountain of naked limestone, present a case analogous to the blocks of Mont Blanc granite on the limestone mountains of the Jura ; both being on spots from which it is impossible they could 158 MB. PARGETER'S ACCOUNT OF BRECCIA AT GIBRAL'tAR. have derived their origin^ and to which they could have been trans- ported by no other force than that of a tremendous deluge, or de- bacle of water drifting them from a great distance to the place th^ at present occupy ; and in which, like all the other deposits of this grand catastrophe, they have remained ever since undisturbed, on the very spot on which they were cast at the time of the last great geo^ logical change^ by an inundation <;£ water that has affected universally the sm&ce of the earth. To the above extracts firom Major Inuie, I am enabled to add the testimony of another gentleman, now resident at Gibraltar, which has just been forwarded to me from thence by my ftiend the Rev. R. Curtois. As the information comes in the form of a letter to Mr. Curtois firom Mr. C. Fargeter, a medical officer at Gibraltar, and who proposes himself to publish an account of the bones they find in that spot, I will subjoin an extract from it, which is equally corroborative of my views with the account I have just transcribed firom Major Imrie. ^ The bones," says he, ^ are found imbedded, 1st. in an ochreous sandy earth, cemented by calcareous matter, and much indurated, together with angular fi-agments of limestone ; or, 2nd. in a mass, which may be termed pudding-stone ; consisting of pebbles of white quartz, and of variously coloured flinty pebbles (of the same nature as noticed by Colonel Imrie^ as occurring in the pot-holes at the summit of the rock) and of limestone' ; all of them much roiinded, and varymg in size from minute gravel to that of a goose's egg; ma- rine shells, but in small number, are sometimes found with the bones in this mass, and all the materials are firmly cemented together ; or. 160 BRECCIA OF FISSURES AND CAVES CONTEMPORANEOUS. that among the remains discovered at Tarifa, is the tusk of an elephant, the chord of whose curve is six feet, and that the greatest quantity of osseous breccia is in a cave opposite Ceuta *. All these circumstances concur to establish, as far as any evidence short of personal examination can establish, an identity of time in the formation of the osseous breccia, in the fissures and caves of Gibraltar, and the coast aiid islands of the Mediterranean, with that of the bones which occur in the caves and fissures of Germany and Eng- land ; and to show, that in each case, the period in which the animal remains were introduced to them was that immediately preceding the inundation, which superadded the mud and pebbles in which they are now enveloped. In the adjacent country of Spain, Mr. Bowles has described some caves at Concud, near Teruel, in Arragon, in a rock of Shelly lime- stone^ in which they find bones and teeth of ox, horse, ass, sheep^ and other animals ; some solid, and in the state of common grave bones, others calcined and falling to powder ; and also human bones, of which the cavities are full of crystalline matter. These in some cases lie in loose earth with roUed pebbles, in others they are united into blocks of hard rock, firom four to eight feet long. The details of Mr. Bowles's description are given by M. Cuvier, and though they are indistinct, it yet seems probable, that here also as at Gibraltar, and * The extensive alluvial calcareous rock here spoken of is the same which I have called diluvium, and its consoUdated state probably arises from the abundance of caka- reous matter which pervades it. A similar consolidation occurs in the calcareous dilu- vium I ha^ before mentioned as containing the bones of bears at Kremsminster, in Upper Austria ; and is very common in all countries, in the case of gravel beds that contain a large proportion of calcareous pebbles, or calcareous sand. BONES IN CAVES OP ITALY, STYKIA, CAENIOLA, CROATIA, &c. 161 near Nice, we have osseous deposits of two eras, one recent and pofii> diluyian, the other immediately antediluvian. In Italy, M. Cuvier mentions several caverns containing similar deposits of bones, to which I am enabled to add, on the authority of Mr. Fentland, that the bones of ruminating animals have been found united by stalagmite to a breccia, like that of Nice and Antibes, in the Grotto Delia Molpa, at Cape Falinurus, in the kingdom of Naples ; and that in the Sabine Mountains, not far firom Tivoli, near the town of Falombaro, there is a cave in which the remains of the bear have been found incrusted with stalagmite, and amongst them a jaw which is in the collection of Professor Xl^anaU, of Perugia. In the gorge, at Peckaw^ in Styria, by which the Mur runs down from Sriick to Grats, there is a lofty verticalcliff of Alpine limestone, in the perpendicular face of which I observed the mouths of several caverns ; some of these have been found to contain also the bones of the great extinct species of bear. The position of these caves with respect to this dihivian gorge is analogous to that of the caves in the diffit that flank the valley of Muggendorf, in Franconia, and of the Avon, at Clifton. An account has recently been published of bones of the same kind of bear discovered at Adelsberg, in Camiola. And a breccia, like that of Gailenreuth, and containing also the bones of bears, has been found in the mountain of Ischuber^ in Croatia. For a detailed account of ftirther localities of these ossiferous caves and fissures, extending as they do over England, Spain, France^ Italy, Dalmatia, Croatia, Carniola, Styria, Austria, Hungary, Poland, 162 PRESENT SURFACE OF EUROPE and Germany, I must refer my readers to the ^ Ossemens Fossiles of Cuvier ;' a work containing more sound and philosophical reasoning on the early state of our planet, and a more valuable collection of authentic facts relating to the history of its fossil animals of the higher orders, than can be found in aU the books that have ever yet been written upon the subject. In the conclusion of my account of Eirkdale, I stated, that its phenomena were decisive in establishing the fact, that aninials which are now limited exclusively to warmer latitudes, e. g. the elephant, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, and hysena, were the antediluvian in- habitants of Britain, and not drifted northwards by the diluvian cur- rents from more southern or equatorial regions, as had often been suggested, and was never till now disproved ; and I pointed out the inference with respect to a probable change of climate in the northern hemisphere, which seems to foUow from this circumstance. Another important consequence arising directly &om the inha- bited caves, and ossiferous fissures, the existence of which has been now shown to extend generally over Europe, is, that the present sea and land have not changed place ; but that the antediluvian surfiu^ of at least a large portion of the northern hemisphere was the same with the present ; since those tracts of dry land in which we find the w ossiferous caves and fissures must have been dry also, when the land animals inhabited or fell into them, in the period immediately pre- ceding the inundation by which they were extirpated. And hence it follows, that wherever such caves and fissures occur, i. e. in the greater part of Europe, and in whatever other parts of the WAS DRY LAND ALSO BEFOBE THE FLOOD. 163 world such bones may be found under similar circumstances, there did not take place any such interchange of the surfaces occupied respectively by land and water, as many writers of high authority have conceived to have immediately succeeded the last great geo- logical revolution, by an universal and transient inundation which has affected the planet we inhabit. y2 164 HUMAN REMAINS IN CAVES OF ENGLAND ALL POSTDILUVIAN. HUMAN KEMAINS IN CAVES. It was mentioned, when speaking of Gailenreuth and Zahnlochy that human remains and urns have been discovered there in the same cave with the bones of antediluvian animals, but that they are of com- paratively low antiquity. Six analogous cases have been noticed in this country in cavities of mountain Umestone, in the counties of Somerset, Glamorgan, Caer- marthen, and York ; and these also are attended by circumstances which indicate them to be of postdiluvian origin. 1. The discovery of human bones incrusted with stalactite^ in a cave of mountain limestone at Surringdon, in the Mendip-hills, and mentioned in CoUinson's History of Somerset, is explained by this cave having either been used as a place of sepulture in early times, or been resorted to for refiige by wretches that perished in it, when the country was suffering under one of the numerous military operations, which, in different periods of our early history, have been conducted in that quarter. The mouth of this cave was nearly closed by stalactite, and many of the bones incrusted with it. In the instance of a skull, this substance had covered the inside as well as the outside of the bones ; and I have a fragment from the inside^ which bears in relief casts of the channel of the veins along the interior of the skull. The state of these bones affords indications of very high antiquity ; but there is no reason for not considering them FOUND AT BUREINGDON AND WOKEY HOLE. 165 postdiluvian. Mr. Skinner, on examination of this cave, found the bones disposed chiefly in a recess on one side, as in a sepulchral cata- comb ; and in the same neighbourhood, at Wellow, there is a large artificial catacomb of high antiquity, covered by a barrow, and con- structed after the manner of that at New Grange, near Slane, in the oounty of Meath, of stones successively overlapping each other till they meet in the roof. In this were found the remains of many human bodies. A description of it may be seen in the Archasologia for 1820. 2. Mr. Miller, of Bristol, has lately discovered the remains of human bodies in the much frequented cave of Wokey Hole, near Wells, at the south-west base of the Mendips. On hearing of the fact in January 1823, 1 went the next day to examine it, and found the bones to be placed in the most secluded and distant part of a large fissure that shoots off laterally from this cave, and is separated firom its main chambers by a subterraneous river of considerable size, that constantly runs through them. They have been broken by repeated dicing to small pieces ; but the presence of numerous teeth establishes the &ct that they are human. These teeth and fragments are dispersed through reddish mud and clay, and some of them united with it by stalagmite into a firm osseous breccia. Among the loose bones I found a small piece of a coarse sepulchral urn. The spot on which they he is within reach of the highest floods of the adjacent river, and the mud in which they are buried is evidently fluviatile, and not diluvian ; so also is great part, if not the whole, of the mud and sand in the adjacent large caverns, the bottoms of all which are filled with water to the height of many feet, by occasional land-floods, 166 HUMAN BONES IN GLAMORGAN AND CAERMARTHENSHIRE. which must long ago have undermined and removed any deposits that may have originally been left in them. I could find no pebbles, nor traces of any other than the human bones, on the single spot I have just described ; these are very old, but not antediluvian. In another cave on this same flank of the Mendips, at Compton Bishop, near Axbridge, Mr. Peter Fry, of Axbridge, discovered in the year 1820 a number of bones of foxes, all lying together in the same spot, and brought away 15 skuUs. These also, like the remains of foxes in Duncombe Park and near Paviland, are of postdiluvian origin, and were probably derived from animals that retired to die there, as the antediluvian bears did in the caves of Grermany. 3. Mr. Dillwyn has observed two analogous cases in the mountain limestone of South- Wales ; one of these was discovered, in ISOS^ near Swansea, in a quarry of limestone at the Mumbles, where the workmen cut across a wedge-shaped fissure, diminishing downv^ards, and filled with loose rubbish, composed of fragments of the adjacent limestone, mixed with mould. In this loose breccia lay, confusedly, a large number of human bones, that appear to be the remains of bodies thrown in after a battle, like those I have mentioned near Eirby Moorside in Yorkshire, with no indications of regular burial ; they were about SO feet below the present upper surface of the lime- stone rock. 4. The other case occurred in 1810 at Llandebie, in Caermarthen- shire, where a square cave was suddenly broken into, in working a quarry of soUd mountain limestone on the north border of the great coal basin. In this cave lay about a dozen human skeletons in two rows at right angles to each other. The passage leading to HUMAN BONES AT KOSTRITZ, NEAR LEIPSIG. 167 this cave had been entirely closed up with stones for the purpose of concealment, and its mouth was completely grown over with grass. 5 and 6. For the particulars of these two cases I refer my readers to the descriptions I have abeady given of the human remains in the cave of Faviland^ in Glamorganshire, and in the fissure at the back of the parks, near Eirby Moorside, in Yorkshire. It is obvious, that in none of these cases are the bones referable to so high an era as those of the wild beasts that occur in the caves at Kirkdale, and elsewhere. The 7th and last case I shall mention is one which has re- cently been published, with a very able and judicious commentary by Mr. Weaver, in the Annals of Philosophy for January 182S; wherein he gives a translation of Baron Schlotheim^s account of hiunan bones discovered in the VaUey of the Elster, near Eostritz in Saxony, a few leagues south-west of Leipsig, and of which I shall subjoin the following abstract. The Valley of the Elster, near Eostritz, is flanked by hills, the summits of which are composed of limestone, locaUy called Zechstein, whilst the lower regions contain beds and large masses of gypsum. Both limestone and gypsum con- tain caves and fissures, which are in each case equally filled with a mass of loam or day of the same kind as that which covers the adjacent country. In this loam are various pebbles of limestone, and of rocks that occur only at a distance, e. g. granite, &c. The principal deposits of bone are in the loam which fills the cavities of the lime- stone : among these there occur at Politz the remains of rhinoceros' horse, ox, hysena, tiger (or jaguar), and bear ; they are in the same 168 BONES AT K6sTRITZ OF TWO ERAS. state as the bones at Gailenreuth and Scharzfeld^ and probably of the same era. The cavities of the gypsum are very nmnerous, commmiicating with each other, and traversing the rock in all directions : in the loam which fills them the bones are dispersed irregularly in durteiBi or collected in heaps, without order, and at different depths, and hme been continuaUy discovered firom the first opening of these quarries, thirty years ago, to the present time. They consist cf ihe following animals: No. 1. Bhinoceros, deer, ox, jaguar, and hyasna, lihe same as in the limestone cavities, excepting the remains of horse. No. 2. Sheep or roe, fox, weasel, squirrel, field-mouse^ shrew« mouse, common rat, hamster rat, bat, mole (five poF# tions of the jaw of young ones), hare^ rabbit, bat, fio^ two species of owl, domestic-cock, and man. These bones. No. 2, occur mixed confiisedlyi not only willi one another, but also with the bones of the extinct animalfl ; they aU belong to existing species, and are in various stages of decay, but are less calcined than the bones of extinct animals. No. 1. Bemains similar to them are found also in the soil of the adjacent fields. Jsl one quarry (called Winters), the human bones were found dght feet below those of rhinoceros, and 26 feet below the sur&ce. It is highly probable, as M. Schlotheim himself suggests, from the admixture of the bones of so many species of recent animals with the humaa remains in the gypsum quarries, that both these are of later origin than those in the limestone; they appear, I think, to have been introduced at a subsequent period into the diluvian loam^ whidii HUMAN BONES POSTDILUVIAN. M. SCHLOTHEI]VrS THEORY. 169 had before contained the more ancient bones and pebbles ; but by what means, or at what precise period of the postdiluvian era, remains yet to be ascertained. M. Schlotheim says, " I am far from thinking satisfactory the explanation I have attempted of these phenomena, and am disposed to con^der the human bones to be of a later epoch than the larger land animals of the ancient world ; all other reported cases of human remains accompanying the bones of beasts of prey have not been con- firmed on closer investigation." He dwells also on the circum- stance, that the limestone cavities which are situated in the hills contain only the remains of ancient animals, whilst ancient and modem bones occur mixed together only in the gypsum cavities, the position of which is at a lower level in a kind of basin at one of the lowest parts of the district. M. Schlotheim's hypothesis is that the ancient bones were washed out of the upper caves into the lower ones, and thus mixed with the modem bones, by a succession of floods, produced by the successive bursting of lakes in a higher part of the country ; I fully agree with him in thinking this explanation unsatisfactory. The chief point, however, is conceded, viz. that the human bones are not of the same antiquity with those of the antediluvian animals that occur in the same caves with them ; and thus far the case of Kostritz affords no exception to the general fact, that human bones have not been discovered in any of those diluvial deposits which have hitherto been examined; and in which, from the great abundance they contain of the remains of wild animals, that could not have existed in numbers sufficient to supply these remains, in a country inha- z 170 HUMAN BONES TO BE LOOKED FOR IN CENTRAL ASIA. bited by man, it is highly improbable that they ever will be found On this important subject I fully coincide with the o|>inions expressed by Mr. Weaver, '^ that the satisfactory solution of the general problem, as far as it relates to man, is probably to be sought more particularly in the Asiatic regions, the cradle of the hiunan race ; and that another interesting branch of inquiry connected with it is, whether any fossil remains of elephant, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, and hysena, exist in the diluvium of tropical climates ; and if they do, whether they agree with the recent species of these genera, or with those extinct species, whose remains are dispersed so largely over the temperate and frigid zones of the northern hemisphere**." * One probable reason why such remains have not been noticed in the banks of the rivers of Central and Southern Asia, and of Africa, may be, that in warm climates^ they cannot have been preserved in ice as in the higher latitudes in a state of perfection fit for the purposes of commerce ; and consequently, can have afforded to the natives no motive to collect them for sale. The absence of roads also in these barbarous coun- tries, and consequent non-existence of open gravel pits^ (in which such remains are for tile most part found in Europe), is another cause, which helps to explain the total ignorance in which we have so long stood, and are likely to continue, as to the presence or absence of bones of any kind in the diluvium of Central Asia, and Afirica. To tiiese we must add the utter inattention of the natives to scientific investigations, and the btai jealousy with which any European would be regarded who should be rash enough to attempt extensive excavations in search of what they never could be taught to believe was any thing else tiian gold. PLAN OF REMAINING PART OF THE WORK. 171 PART II. Having thus far fulfilled my original proposal to illustrate my account of Eirkdale, and the caves of England, by a comparative view of similar caverns and fissures on the Continent, I come now to the second part of my inquiry, viz. the evidence of diluvial action afforded by the accumulation on the earth's sur&ce of loam and gravel, con- taining the remains of the same species of animals that we find in the caves and fissures, and by the form and structure of hiUs and valleys in all parts of the world. EVIDENCE OF DILUVIAL ACTION FROM THE DIS- PERSION OF THE BONES OF ELEPHANTS, &c As the fossil elephant is more generally dispersed, and has been more fi*equently noticed than any one of the other animals we find witib it in the diluvial detritus of which I am about to speak, and as it is peculiar to^ and may be considered characteristic of deposits c^this z2 172 FOSSIL ELEPHANT, OR MAMMOTH, IS AN EXTINCT SPECIES. era, I shall introduce my remarks on the evidence of diluvial action afforded by deposits of loam and gravel with a short history of the remains of this animal, and of the extent to which they occur in England ; and with respect to the Continent, shall simply refer to Cuvier for proofs of their dispersion over every country, and almost every valley in Europe and northern Asia, as well as in North America. The fossil elephant differs from any living species of that genus, but approaches more nearly to the Asiatic than to that of Africa. Blumenbach has distinguished it by the name of elephas primigenius, and Cuvier of elephant fossile. The term mammoth (animal of the earth) has been applied to it by the natives of Siberia, who imagined the bones to be those of some huge animal that lived at present like a mole beneath the surface of the earth. It appears from the wonderful specimen that was found entire in the ice of Tungusia, that this species was clothed with coarse tufty wool of a reddish colour, interspersed with stiff black hair, unlike that of any known animal ; that it had a long mane on its neck and back, and had its ears protected by tufls of hair, and was at least sixteen feet high. The bones of elephants occurring in Britain had from very an- cient times attracted attention, and are mentioned with wonder by the early historians (see Harrison's Introduction to Hollingshed's Chronicle, ch. v. p. 17 and 21 ; also Eoger de Coggleshall, as quoted by Camden, Collinson's Hist, of Somerset, vol. i. p. 180, and Pkitt's Oxfordshire, p. 132 to 139) ; but their history was never ftdly under- stood till the recent investigations of Cuvier. The old and vulgar OLD OPINIONS AS TO ELEPHANTS' BONES IN ENGLAND. 173 kiotion that they were gigantic bones of the human species is at once rented by the smallest knowledge of anatomy. The next idea, which long prevailed, and was considered satisfactory by the anti- quaries of the last century, was, that they were the remains of el^hants imported by the Roman armies. This idea is also refuted ; 1st, by the anatomical fact of their belonging to an extinct species of this genus ; 2dly, by their being usually accompanied by the bones of rhinoceros and hippopotamus, animals which could never have been attached to Boman armies; Sdly, by their being found dis- jpersed over Siberia and North America, in equal or even greater abundance than in those parts of Europe which were subjected to the Roman power. The still later and more rational idea, that they were drifted northwards by the diluvian waters from tropical regions, must be abandoned on the authority of the evidence afforded by the den at Kirkdale ; and it now remains only to admit, that they must have inhabited the countries in which their bones are found. It was to be expected that the remains of elephant should be found in the diluvial gravel of Yorkshire, from the fact already established, that these animals inhabited the neighbourhood of Kirkdale, whilst its caverns were occupied by hysenas ; and accordingly, the teeth, tusks, jEind bones of elephants of prodigious size have been found in the dilu- vium at Robin Hood's Bay, near Whitby, at Scarborough, Bridlington, and several other places along the shore of Holdemess. As we proceed southwards, we continue to find them abundantly on the coast, and in the interior of Norfolk, Suffolk^ and Essex. The largest deposit of them is at Walton, near Harwich, where they lie in a mass of diluvial clay between high and low water mark, mixed with great numbers of 174 EXTENT OF FOSSIL ELEPHANTS, IN ENGLAND. the teeth, bones, and horns of elk, stag, ox, horse, hippopotamus, and other diluvial animals. In the valley of the Thames they have been dis- covered atSheppy, the Isle of I>(^Lewishain,London,Brentford,S[ew^ Hurley Bottom, WaUingford, Dorchester, Abingdon, and Oxford ; also at Norwich, Canterbury, and Chartham, near Rochester. On the south coast of England they occur at Lyme Regis and Charmouth (from the latter place Mr. De la Beche has lately obtained a tusk nine feet eight inches in length); also at Abbotsbury, Burton, and Loders, near Bridport, and near Yeovil in Somerset. At Whitchurch, near Dor- chester, they lie in gravel above the chalk, and are found in a similar position on Salisbury Plain : in the valley of the Avon also, at Box^ and Newton near Bath, and in that of the Severn, at Gloucester ; and at Bodborough, near Stroud. In the centre of England we have them at Trentham, in Staffordshire, at two places mentioned by Grew and Morton, in Northamptonshire, and abundantly at Newnham and Lawford, near Eugby, in Warwickshire. In North Wales, Pennant mentions two molar teeth and a tusk found in Flintshire^ at Halkin, near the mouth of the Vale of Clwydd ; and they are not wanting, though they have be^i less fi^uently noticed, in Scotland and Ireland. In all these cases they are found in the superficial diluvial detritus, consisting either of gravel, sand, loam, or clay, and are never embedded in any of the regidar strata. The circumstances that attend some of these deposits require to be more particularly detailed. In the streets of Lcmdon the teeth and bones are often founds in digging foundations and sewers, embedded in the gravel ; e. g. elephants' teeth have been found under 12 feet of gravel in Gray's-Inn Lane ; and lately at 30 feet deep, in digging th^ FOUNI> UNDER THE STREETS OF LONDON AND OXFORD. 175 grand sewer, near Charles-street, on the east of Waterloo Place. At Kingsland, near Hoxton, in 1806, an entire elephant's skull was dis- covered, containing two tusks of enormous length, as well as the grinding-teeth : they have also been frequently found at Ilford, on the road from London to Harwich, and, indeed, in almost all the gravel-pits round London. The teeth are of all sizes, from the milk- teeth to those of the largest and most perfect growth ; and some of them show all the intermediate and peculiar stages of change to which the teeth of modern elephants are subject. In the gravel-pits at Oxford and Abingdon, teeth and tusks, and various bones of the elephant, are found mixed with the bones of rhinoceros, horse, ox, hog, and several species of deer, oflen crowded together in the same pit, and seldom rolled or rubbed at the edges, although they have not been found united in entire skeletons *. In the Ashmolean Museum there are some vertebrae, and a thigh- bone of an enormous elephant, at least sixteen feet high, which are in the most delicate state of preservation, and were foimd in the gravel at Abingdon four or five years ago. In the same pit with them were collected also fragments of sixteen horns of deer. These bones and horns are extremely soft and brittle whilst wet, but harden by drying : they are not in the smallest degree mineralised, but retain less of their animal matter than those which have been laid in clay or loam ; they are very adherent to the tongue. About three years since * For a further detail of the gravel beds of Oxford, Witham Hill, and Bagky Wood, and of the organic remams contained in them, I must again refer to chap. xviL of Dr. Kidd's Geological Essays. 176 ELEPHANT AND HIPPOPOTAMUS AT BRENTFORD. a large molar tooth of an elephant was dug up in a gravel-pit in one of the streets of Oxford, in front of St. John's College. In the Philosophical Transactions for 1813, is a report of the tusk of an elephant, nine feet long, and of other remains of the same animal, with those of hippopotamus, ox, and several species of deer, and the horn of an ox, four feet and half in length, all of which were found by Mr. Trimmer in the gravel of the valley of the Thames, near Brentford. Six tusks of the hippopotamus lay in an area of 120 yards. At Plate XXII. fig. 5, I have copied from Lee's Natural History of Lancashire the entire head of an hippopotamus, found in that county imder a peat bog. In all these gravel beds it rarely happens that two bones he in immediate contact with each other, and in very few cases are they rounded by attrition. At Newnham, in Warwickshire, near Church Lawford, about two miles west of Rugby, two magnificent heads and numerous bones and teeth of several individuals of the Siberian rhinoceros, with many large tusks and teeth of elephants, and some stag's horns, and bones of the ox and horse, were found, in the year 1 8 1 5, in a bed of diluvium, which is im- mediately incumbent on stratified beds of has ; and is composed of amix- ture of various pebbles, sand, and clay : in the lower regions of which, (where the clay predominates), the bones are found at the depth of 15 feet from the surface ; they are not in the smallest degree mineralised, and have lost almost nothing of their weight or animal matter. One of these heads, measuring in length two feet six inches, together with a smaU tusk, and molar tooth of an elephant, have, by the kindness of Henry Hakewill, Esq. (of architectural celebrity) been ELEPHANTS' AND OTHER BONES IN NORTH WALES. 177 deposited in the Museum at Oxford. The other and larger head, with a tooth and leg bone of the same animal, has been presented by Henry Warburton, Esq. to the Geological Society of London. Of the remaining tusks of elephants, the Jargest is in the possession of G. Harris, Esq. of Kugby ; and the other of J. Caldecot, Esq. of Lawford. These tusks have all of them a considerable curvature outward towards the point, Uke those of the one found entire in the ice of Tungusia. By the kindness of Edward Grimes, Esq. another enormous semi-circular tusk, from the same place, measuring seven feet in length, together with a highly valuable collection of the bones of rhinoceros, are deposited in the Oxford Museum *. The remains of elephant, which I have mentioned as being found in North Wales, in the Vale of Clwydd, and near Dyserth, are attended with some peculiar circumstances : they are commonly said to occur in a lead mine, and so in fact they do ; but it is a lead mine of an unusual kind, being conducted in a bed of diluvial gravel, that contains pebbles of lead, as the gravel beds of Cornwall, called stream works, contain pebbles and sand of tin ore. Extensive lead mines of the same kind are worked in North America, between Lake Su- perior and the Missisipi. It is the only case I know in this country, * Many of these latter have been engraved in voL ii. part i. plate xiv. of Cuvier's Animaux Fossiles, from drawmgs by Miss Morland. The largest and finest head I have ever seen of this species of rhinoceros was sent me from Siberia by J. Prescott, Esq. now resident at St. Petersburg ; and I have presented it, through M. Cuvier, to the Museum of the Royal Garden at Paris^ where they had no head of this animal. This specimen is engraved in vol. ii. part i. plate xii. of Cuvier^s Animaux Fossiles^ and in the Philosophical Transactions for 182^^ part i. plate iii. In the British Museum there are two heads of the same species^ one of which was presented to the late Sir Joseph Banks by the Emperor of Russia. A A 178 SECTIONS OF LEAD MINES IN THE GRAVEL AT CLWYDD- where lead is found under such circumstances in sufficient quantity to be worth working. It is locally called flat ore, from its occurring in flat or horizontal beds of graveL Its occurrence here is explained by the position of this gravel bed at the mouth of a valley of de- nudation, cut in the limestone hills of Halkin, which are fiill of lead veins. The gravel resulting from this destruction contains fragments of lead ore, mixed up with the wreck of the rock, that formed its matrix before the excavation of the valley. Its thickness is unusually great, and several mines are worked in it ; one, called Gronant Mine^ gives the foUowing section : 1. Vegetable mould, two feet. 2. Clay, mixed with some sand and rolled stones, £6 yards. 3. Gravel beds, containing rolled pieces of lead of all sizes, eight yards. In another mine, called Tal-ar-goch, the remains of ox and stag are found at present : and in 1815 a pair of stag's horns were discovered at 60 yards below the surface^ and are now in the possession of the Earl of Fljrmouth at Tardebig. The section of this mine is : 1. Vegetable mould, two feet 2. Clay, 26 yards. S. Sand and gravel, 68 yards ; containing pebbles of copper as well as of lead. Horns, teeth, and bones, are found in it, at from 40 to 70 yards from the surface^ and also at the bottom of the gravel, in immediate contact with the subjacent limestone'rock. Another shaft dug one mile south of St. Asaph, at a spot between the Ebwy and the Clwydd, presented irregular alternations of clay REMAINS OF ELEPHANTS FOUND IN SCOTLAND. 179 and gravel, to the depth of 88 feet. For the above particulars, as to these lead mines, I am indebted to the kindness of C. Stokes, Esq. and Robert Dawson Esq. * Of the occurrence of elephants in Scotland, we have the following evidence by Mr. Bald, in the 4th voL of the Wemerian Transactions* p. 58, where he Hstates, that an elephant's tusk, 39 inches long, and 13 in circumference, and weighing 25f pounds, was found embedded in diluvial clay at Clifton Hall, between Edinburgh and Falkirk, in cutting the canal in July, 1820, at the depth of 15 or 20 feet below the present surface ; it was in so high a state of preservation, that it was purchased for two pounds, and sawn asunder, by an ivory turner at Edinburgh, to be made into chess men ; but the parts have been preserved by Sir Alexander Maitland Gibson, and an engraving of it is attached to the memoir by Mr. Bald. Two other tusks, of nearly the same size, were also discovered, with several small bones l3dng near them, in Jan. 1817, at Kilmaurs, in Ayrshire, near the water of Carmel, at the depth of ] 7^ feet from the surface, in a mass of similar diluvial clay. Parts of these are preserved at Eglington Castle, and in the College Museum at Edinburgh f. * I am informed by Professor Sedgewick, that being in Derbyshire in 1818, he was told that bones had been found in a lead mine on Bakewell Moor, nearly 100 feet below the surface ; and that on visiting the spot« he found the miners working in a fissure filled with pebbles of limestone and sandstone, large rolled pebbles of galena, and mud: amongst these were teeth and fragments of the bones of horses. These probably had been all washed together into the open fissure at the same time, when the galena pebbles and elephants' bones were lodged together in the Vale of Clwydd, and the rhinoceros, &c. washed into the Dream Cave near Wirksworth. -f The state of preservation of these tusks is nearly equal to that of the fossil ivory of Russia : those found in England are usually more -decayed. The only one I have seen sufficiently hard to be used by the turners was found on the coast of Yorkshire, where A a2 180 ELEPHANTS IN IRELAND. HEAP OF BONES NEAR STUTGARD. With respect to Ireland, there is a description in the Philosophical Transactions for 1715, by Dr. Molineux, accompanied by engravings, of some molar teeth of elephant found at Maghery, in the county of Cavan ; and the occurrence of the remains of the same large and ex- tinct species of elk, with that found in the diluvial clay and gravel of Walton in Essex, and other parts of England, is notorious and almost universal in the marl that lies at the bottom of the Irish peat bogs *• For foreign localities of the fossil elephant, I have already referred to Cuvier's account of places in which they have been found all over Europe. Blumenbach, in his Archgeologia Telluris, part i, p, 12, 1803, states, that within his knowledge more than 200 elephants, and 30 rhinoceroses, have been found in Germany. At Seilberg, near Canstadt, on the Necker, in 1816, they dis- covered, in 24 hours, 21 teeth, or fragments of teeth of elephant mixed with a great number of bones ; and soon after, in continuing their diggings, fell on a group of 13 tusks and some molar teeth of elephants, heaped close upon each other, as if they had been packed artificially. These were all carefully removed, in their natural position, with the clay in which they were embedded, by order of the King, to the Cabinet at Stutgard. The largest of the tusks, though it had lost its point and root, was eight feet long, and one foot in diameter. They are in good preservation, and in general curved to the amount of three quarters of a circle, and bending outwards. At the village of Thiede, on the plain, four miles south-west of the diluvium is very argillaceous : a portion of this tusk is now preserved in a Museum at Bridlington. * Dr. Molineux says that in the space of twenty years^ thirty individuals of the Irish elk have been found in the county of Meath, and three of these in the same acre of land. HEAP OF BONES NEAR BRUNSWICK, AT THIEDE. 181 the town of Brunswick, a similar discovery was made in 1816, of a congeries of tusks, teeth, and bones, piled together in a heap of 10 feet square, and embedded in diluvial loam that covers some gypsum quarries in the new red sandstone. In this small heap, (see Plate XXIV.) Mr. Berger, of Brunswick, found 11 tusks of elephant, one of them 11 feet long, another 14 feet 8 inches long, and 12f inches in diameter, and both curved into a perfect semicircle; SO molar teeth, and many large bones of elephant, some of which were five feet long, and one of them, according to Mr. Bieling, six feet eight inches. Mixed with these were the bones and teeth of rhinoceros, horse, ox, and stag ; they all lay mixed confusedly together : none of them were rolled, or much broken ; and the teeth for the most part separate and without the jaws : there were also some horns of stag. I have seen the hole from which they were taken: it remained entire in 1822, and no further search had been made m the loam surrounding it. I saw also many of the specimens in the collection of Mr. BieUng at Brunswick, who has published a short description, with an engraving of them, as they lay in the quarry. It is very difficult to account for this partial accumulation of various teeth and bones : they were most probably drifted together by eddies in the dHuvian waters ; but can- not have been roUed far, as they have rarely lost any thing of their projecting points and angles. A third spot in which they occur in unusual abundance is near Florence, in the valley of the Amo, above the gorge of Incisa. From this gorge, the valley widens upwards to Arezzo, a distance of 25 miles, whilst the hills become gradually more and more contracted 183 ELEPHANT, RHINOCEROS, &c. IN THE VAL D*AENO. towards its lower extremity, and would meet, but for the existence of the gorge cut through them, at Insica, and &om which the town has evidently derived its name. This gorge forms the only outlet to the waters of the Amo^ and appears to be of diluvial origin like that of the Derwent, at New Malton, and of the Weissent, near Mugg^w dorf; and without it, the valley above must have been a lake: within the last ten years, parts of the skeletons of at least a hundred hippopotami have been discovered here, and placed in the Museum at Florence. With these are found also, in great abundance, the remains of rhinoceros and elephant, together with those of horses, oxen, several species of deer, hyaena, bear, tiger, fox, wol^ mastodon, hog, tapir, and beaver : they are from animals of all ages, and one of the elephants could not have been a week old. The analogies which this valley and its gorge present to those of the antediluvian lake^ in the Vale of Pickering, and its gorge at Malton, as described in my account of Eirkdale, together with the resemblance of so many of the ^nimalfi which at that time occupied these districts respectively, shows an identity of the antediluvian condition of Italy and England too striking to be overlooked ; and each assists in throwing light 2en regions of Russia and Siberia. Over these countries their dispersion also is universal There is not, says Pallas, in all Asiatic Sussia, fiom the Don to the extremity of the promontory of Tchut- chis, a stream or river in the banks of which they do not find elephants and other animals now strangers to that climate. These are washed out by the violent floods arising from the thaw of the snows, and have attracted universally the attention of the natives, who collect annually the elephants' tusks to seU as ivory. I have already mentioned the elephants' teeth found by Eotzebue, in the ice- berg, near Behring's Straits, and the extraordinary quantity of similar bones and teeth of elephants and oxen in the islands of mud and ice, at the mouth of the Lena. For a detailed account of these, and of the carcase found entire in the ice of Tungusia, and which is now preserved at Petersburg, I must refer to M. Cuvier's Animaux Fossiles, or to the translation of his * Essay on the Theory of the Earth,' published by Mr. Jameson *. Mr. Mitchell, in his translation of this same essay, has shown the extent to which this extinct species of elephant prevails in North America. Humboldt, also, has found it on the plains of Mexico, and in the province of Quito. How is it possible to explain the general dispersion of all these * A translation of the account given of this animal, in the Memoirs of the Imperial Academy of Sciences, at Petersburg, accompanied by an engraving of the entire skeleton, with the flesh still adhering to the head, has been published in a small Tract of 15 pages, by Mr. Phillips, George-yard, Lombard-street, 1819* Its two tusks together weighed 860 pounds. 184 ELEPHANTS LIVED WHERE THEIR BONES ARE FOUND. remains, but by admitting that the elephants, as well as all the other creatures whose bones are buried with them, were the antediluvian inhabitants of the extensive tracts of country over which we have been tracing them ? and that they were all destroyed together, by the waters of the same inundation which produced the deposits of loam and gravel in which they are embedded. ALLUVIAL DEPOSITS OF TWO DISTINCT ERAS. 185 EVIDENCE OF DILUVIAL ACTION AFFORDED BY DEPOSITS OF LOAM AND GRAVEL. It is admitted on all hands, that the surface of the earth is strewed over with deposits of gravel, sand, and loam, which have been drifted to their present place by the action of water, since the formation of the strata over which these deposits are irregularly spread. To account for these appearances, various theories have been suggested, all of which have been defective, from their attempting to refer to one common cause two distinct classes of phenomena ; viz. 1st, the general dispersion of gravel and loam over hills and elevated plains, as well as valleys ; and 2d, the partial collection of gravel at the foot of torrents, and of mud at the mouths and along the course of rivers. The former of these I shall endeavour to show are the effects of an universal and transient deluge, the latter are clearly referable to the action of existing causes. I know not any work in which this distinction is so well and so clearly laid down as in a paper by Mr. Bald, (in the third volume of the Wemerian Memoirs, p. 123, and fourth volume, p. 58), in his account of the Clackmannan Coal Field ; in which he says, "The alluvial cover which rests upon the rocks of this district is of two very distinct kinds, which are termed the old and the recent alluvial covers ;" and this observation, he adds, applies to every district of Great Britain which he has examined : *^ that termed recent is found along banks of rivers and lakes, and is generally very fertile ; and along the Frith of Forth is in some places B B 186 MR. BALITS"AEHJVIUM OF TWO ERAS IN SCOTLAND. 90 feet deep*: it contains abundance of organic remains ci trees^ shells, &C.9 and is visibly forming every day : on the other hand, the old alluvial cover is of vast extent, occupying a large portion of the surface of Great Britain, is found at great heights and also under the level of the sea, and is of three kinds : first, sand ; second, gravel; third, day; the clay is sometimes mixed with sand, gravel^ and boulder stones, which are several tons in weight The whole is without horizontal divisions into beds or strata, and both lai^ge and small boulder stones are found mixed irregularly through every pait of it. In some places it attains the thickness of 160 feet ; besides boulder stones, it contains gravel (L e. rounded fragments) of almost every Mnd of rocks, and angular fragments of the adjacent rock% wfaidb are ofben of a softer nature than those which have been rolled to pebbles. It is this old alluvial cover in which the (elephants* tttsks are loimd;. but besides these and the bones found with them, it has been observed to cdhtain no other kind of organic remains ; jthe abjence of such remains, iatnd irregular manner in which the ma- teriids of dus deposit are mixed together, lead to a condusion that they were collected by some vicdent and sudden convulsion totaUy rdiiBfereni &omihe daiiy and grtidual process by which the present alluviumiiias been and continues to be formed. '^ ' * It was in this allayiuiii, that the entire skeleton of a large whale, wMeh is now in the College Museum, at Edinburgh, was found a few years since ; it must have been drifted and stranded there, while this part of the estuary was under the process of fining up by the deposits of the present sea. The bones of whales have been found in a neaxfy similar position at Pentuan, in an andent estuary that is now filled up on the coast of Cornwall A description of the stream works at this place is given in Vol. IV. of Ae Geol. Trans, p. 4j04, ^ MR. STRANGWArs ALLUVIUM AND DILUVIUM IN RUSSIA. 1«7 The difference between the two species of alluvium thus clearly pointed out by Mr. Bald, as prevailing in Scotland, is the same which I have stated to exist universally over the world ; and for the purpose of distinguishing which, I have, in my table of the super-position of the strata in the British islands, proposed to limit the term alluvial to those partial deposits which Mr. Bald calls " recent alluvial covers,*' the origin of which may be referred to the daily action of torrents, rivers, and lakes; and to appropriate the term diluvium to those universal deposits of gravel and loam which he calls << the old alluvial covers," to the production of which no cause at present in action is adequate, and which can only be referred to the waters of a sudden and transient deluge *. * The Hon. Win. Strangways, in a valuable Synoptic Table of the Fonnations near Petersburg, published by him during his late residence in that city, has adopted the di- vision I am now speaking of between diluvian and postdiluvian formations ; disdngaidiiiig them by the name of diluvium and alluvium. He dates the commencement o£ the allu- tium from, the period of the retreat of the last waters that have covered the earth, and includes under it — ^1, Drift sand; marine^ or inland; 2, Marsh land; composed df mtid deporited by rivers; 8, Peat; 4, Calcareous tuf. All these formationi are referable to causes that are still in daily action. Under the term diluvium he includes the superficial gravel beds that lie indiscriminately on all strata of antediluvian origin, and are composed of a mixed detritus of pebbles, sand, and clay, torn down from formations of all Ages, except alluvial; and also the blocks of granite and other fragments of primitive and secondary rocks, that are scattered over the plains and low hills of that part of the north of Europe, either mixed with the superficial gravel, or lying insulated in situations to which tbty must have been drifted fit>m very considerable distances, as there is no matrix near them from which they could by possibility have been derived. He has omitted to men* tieii beds of gravel produced locally by torrents and rapid rivers, hecaxae the flat con* ditioii of the district on which his synoptic table is founded has allowed ho gravel of this kind to be transported to so great a distance from the hills or mountains, from the daily detritus of which it is immediately derived. A well digestedvand valuable comparative account of the mode of action and effect B B 2 188 ALLUVIUM AT BASE OF MOUNTAIN TORRENTS. I have seen a good example of these two deposits in HoUand, in immediate contact with one another. The alluvial detritus of of rivers and mountain torrents, showing that the maximum of thdbr force is wholly, i^ competent either to excavate the main trunks of the valleys through which they floWj qr to produce the gravel beds that cover them at a distance from the hills and mountains whence this gravel has been transported, is given in chap. SO of Dr. Kidd's Geol(^oil Essays, and in the second Essay of Mr. Greenough's Examination of the first Princip^ of Geology. The same subject has been treated with equal accuracy and ability by M. Brongniart in the latter part of his " Histoire naturelle de I'Elau/' published in the 14th volume of the *^ Dictionnaire des Sciences naturelles,'* and separately as a small paniphlet, which I strongly secommend to the attention of those persons who vrish for correct information as to the effects produced by water upon the surface of our glob^. A difficulty occurs frequently along the base of a mountain chain, in marking t|ie exact line which separates the deposits of postdiluvian detritus, which have been and stOl continue to be drifted down by wintry torrents, from that gravel which is strictly of '8i» luvian origin. The bursting of an Alpine Lake (such as occurred in June, 1818^ in the valley of the Dranse in Switzerland), and the daily action of torrents and rapid rivers in times of flood, are competent to produce partially over a limited district, beds of gravel s(»newhat similar to those of the great diluvian waters. Striking examples of this kind are afforded in the Duchy of Venice, along the base of that part of the Alps which lies immediately on the north and north-west of the town of Valvasone, where the flood waters of the Tagliamento, the Meduna, and the Zelline, have strewed the plains to an extent of many miles from the base of the mountains with a beach of pebbles of enoimous breadth, which in summer is dry and barren, Tesembling a naked chesil bank on the sea shove. Similar features are presented by the Torre and MaUna torrents on the north-east of Udina, and by the numerous torrents that descend into the plain of JLombardy, from the mountains on the north of Verona and Vicenza. The Trebbia and Taro rivers also, and all the torrents adjacent to them, which fall into the Po from the south, near Parmaiuid Piacemut, cover the lands in the vicinity of their courses with a similar and annually in- creasing accumulation of detritus, from that part of the Apennines in which they take their origin. And In our own country, the small river of Avon Lwyd or Tor Vaen, which de- scends from the west side of the Blorenge moimtain in Monmouthshire, by the valley of Fontypool, presents, at the point where it leaves the mountains immediately below that town, a naked strand of pebbles, that is perpetually shifting and laying desolate the leiel regions that succeed immediately to the sudden termination of the steep and precipitooa mountain valley, along which the torrent has its course above PontypooL At the point where transverse mountain valleys fall into the great longitudinal valleyB» ALLUVIUM COVERING DILUVIUM IN HOLLAND. 189 modem rivers which is so enormous in that country, never rises above the level of the highest possible land floods ; but beneath this level forms nearly the entire surface of that low and extensive flat ; whilst the diluvial deposits rise from beneath it into a chain of hiUs, com- posed of gravel, sand, and loam, which cross Guelderland, between the Yssel and the Rhine, from the south-east border of the Zuyder Zee, to Amheim, and Nymegen, and form at the latter place a cli£^ overhanging the left bank of the Waal, and another clifl^ of the same kind on the right bank of the Rhine, from Amheim to Amerongen on the road to Utrecht. In the districts that lie below the flood- level of these rivers, it is probable that there is an extensive deposit of this same diluvium buried beneath the alluvium, which forms the surface ; and the certainty of this fact has been established in several places, where, from the bursting of dykes, the water has made eauoBr vations through the alluvium into the subjacent diluvium, we sometimes find a considerable talus-shaped accumulation of postdiluvian grav^ par- tially filling up the diluvian gorge of the transverse valley^ and protruding itself to a con- siderable distance into the main trunk of the longitudinal valley; many striking examples ' of iliis latter kind may be seen in ascending the passage of Mont Cenis on its western 'Ode from Aiguebelle upwards. Here, at the termination or mouth of the transverse valleys that fall into the main valley of the Arc, immense talusses of gravel of modem origin project into the latter valley, being often incumbent on, and easily distinguishable Aarn^ the subjacent beds of diluvial gravel, and sometimes protruding across the great longitudinal valley, so as entirely to obstruct it, with the exception of a small passage which is kept open by the present river, in the lowest edge of the talus. I have seen also . timilar examples well displayed at the mouths of the transverse valleys, that fall into the main valley of the Kiszucza River, on the Hungarian side of the pass of lablunka, at the • watt extremity of the Carpathians. Deposits of this kind go on accumulating daily under ' oar observation, and may, by careful investigation, be always distinguished from that gravel which is stricdy diluvian. All the cases above quoted rest on my own personal observations. 190 ALLUVIUM AND DILUVIUM ON EAST COAST QP ENGLAND. up from it the teeth and bones of thi& extinct dephimt''^ and other animals, which are peculiar to that formation. The term alluyial has, howQver,. been hitherto applied too generally, not only to the diluvial and postdiluvial formations :I ani now speaking o^ but also to all deposits of whatever era» in the regular strata, that have been drifted to their present plaoe l^ the action of water ; and when thus used affords no kind of information as to the age or relatiops.Qf^^he deposit to which it is applied. The important distinction I l^ve been drawing between diluvian and alluvium is not less remarkable in the lowlands of the estuaries of the Thames, the Wash, of Lincolnshire, and the Humber, than it is in.HoUandv ,At th^ Tnouths of all these rivers, and of othen less important, there is a continual gain of new land^ by depositiona of mud and silt, analc^ous to those which form deltas at the mouth of the Rhine, the Po, and the Nile. On the east coast of En^and, theie is also a considerable addition of silt and mud on some parts, which is derived from extensive cliffs of diluvial day and mud, that are con- tinually cut away by the action of the sea in others. The history of deposits of this kind has been so admirably illustrated in M. Cuvi^'s Theory of the Earth, and the proofs he advances to show that the period at which they began to be formed cannot have, been excee^higly remote are so decisive, that, referring my rieaders to him for furtbar information on this subject, I proceed to consider the evidences . of diluvial action preceding the commencement of this alluvium, via. * In the Museum at Leyde.iij there is an immense os innominatom <^ an dephant, three feet six inches long, which was washed up in this manner in 1809f by the inuiMJUt- tion at Leonen, in the district of Betuwe. The head of an elephant three feet ten inches long was discovered in a similar manner after an inundation at Henk elnm . ORikVEL HAT BE TRACED TQ ITS NATIVE ROCK.; 191 tlie histoiy of the fonnation and extent^of those deposits of loam ahd gravel which I have already to a certain degree marked out in traicing that of the elephants embedded in them^ and Which, as I have before Irtated, sfe of universal occurreace in this as in every other countiy; The loa;in itself possesses no character by which it is easy to ^certain the source from which it has been derived, but usually varies witih the nature of the hills composing the adjacent districts. It is of immense extent on the Continent, is known in Germany by the dj^lktioH of << Dammerde,'' and of ^ Terrain d'attrissement" in F]!tfffice; and its occasional abundance on. the chalk of the north of finance is the cause of greater fertility in some of the dialky dktrio^ of that country than of our own. But the deposits of gravel cantaih soHd fragments, and often large blocks of granite and other rodoik which can be traced to their parent mountain ; the position of which with respect to the fragments is important, as affording a proof 0f the direction of the currents that drifted them to their present plaoe df lodgment. This diluvial gravel is almost always of a compound diaiacter, totitaining amongst the detritus of each immediate neighbourhood^ "tMrhich usually forms its greatest bulk, rolled fragments of rocks, whose native bed occurs only at great distances, and which must have been drifted thence at the 'time of the formation of the gravel, in wtndi they aie at present lodged. Now, if we examine with this view the eastern coast of Englandi we shall find that from the mouth of the Tweed to that of the Thames, it is covered irregularly with beds of superficial loom, or day and gravel, of enormous thickness, not only in the lowland dis- tricts, but also on the summits of lofty hills, and on the elevated 192 DILUVIUM ON SUBOflTS AB WELL ' *• table lands of the interior : e. g. on the north of Bridlington there are beds^ of this kind forming a cfqp, on the chalk hills and difib he* tween that town and Flamborough Head ; they are also found, in a similar position, between Flamborough Head and Filey Bay, as well as on the top of the cli£& near Scarborough, and on the north of Tyne* mouth. They also occupy the whole coast of the Holdemess part of Yorkshire and the coast of Lincolnshire, and form the entire district between the sea and the wolds of these two counties. They abound still further on the shores of Norfolk, Suffolk, and Essex, forming along all this coast difBs that overhang the sea, and are undergoing a perpetual destruction by the waves, so that many viUages have been lost, and the groimd on which they stood reduced below the level c^ the present sea*. In the interior, they are spread widely over the table-lands of Suffolk and Norfolk ; and in the north cover much of the country between Newcastle and Tynemouth, and between Stock** ton-on-Tees and Darlington f. Their most opoiimon character in the localities here enumerated is that o£iMb||||w day, through which are dispersed irregularly * . . » J* - • fpdl^blM-'dr;i;f^ kinds,^ together with the bones of elephants lOidotlaer Milmals before spoken of. The pebbles are of two classes^ 1. composed of the wreck of the adjacent inland districts of England ; ^. large blocks and pebbles of many varieties of primitive and tran? sition rocks which do not occur in England, and which can only be accounted for by supposing them to have been drifted from the * See Mr. Ghreenougb's Geological Map for the names of lost Tillages all along die east coast of England. The old church-yard at Walton, in Essex, is at this time (1898)^ under the process of being cut away. It will, in a few years, be wholly destroyed. f It is well displayed in the quarries where the great Whin dyke crosses the Tees, a few miles aboVe Stockton. NORWEGIAN PEBBLES ON THE EAST COAST OF ENGLAND. 19S nearest continental strata of Norway, by a force of water analogous to, and contemporaneous with that which drifted the blocks of Fin-^" land granite over the plains of Russia*, and the North of Germany. A diluvial current from the North is the only adequate cause that can be proposed, and it is one that seems to satisfy all the conditions of our problem. The pebbles of iridescent felspar, like that of Labrador, which are found on the coast near Bridlington, and resemble similar fragments near Petersburg -f-, can only be referred to the primitive districts of the most northern parts of Europe. Many of the other pebbles of the English coast can be identified with rocks that are known to exist in Norway, and must have been drifted hither at the time of the de- position of the masses of clay and gravel through which they are dis- seminated ; it is impossible to refer them to any action of the present sea, because they occur on the high table lands of the interior as weU as on the coasts, and because the cliflfs themselves, being composed of clay mixed with the pebbles in question, are undergoing daily destruc- tion, and receive no addition from the action of the present waves. These foreign (and probably Norwegian) pebbles on the coast of England are mixed up with the wreck of the hills composing the in- terior of each district respectively ; and the component fragments of * The enormous block of granite which forms the base of the celebrated statue of the Czar Peter, at Petersburg, was one of these drifted masses that lay on the marshy plain n&ar that city, whence it was moved to the town on rollers and cannon balls whilst the ground of the marshes was hardened with ice. f The Duke of Devonshire possesses a magnificent block of this kind of felspar^ which was found a few years since in the bed of the Neva whilst his grace was at Peters- burg. I saw it at Chatsworth in 182 1, when it had been judiciously sawn into most beautiful slabs^ each of sufficient diameter to make a small table. C C 194 WRECK OF EACH NEIGHBOURHOOD MIXED WITH THEM. the latter are less rolled and more angular than those which have come from the Continent : thus in the counties of Suffolk, Norfolk^ Lincoln, and Yorkshire, the dUuvium contains a large proportion of fragments of chalk and chalk-flints, which might have been derived j&om the immediately subjacent strata of chalk, or their continuation across the German Ocean by the Dogger Bank to Denmark ; whilst in the counties of Durham and Northumberland there are no remains of chalk, but a similar admixture of the wreck of strata that compose the coal formation of these counties, with Scotdb, Norwegian, and Swedish rocks. In the diluvium of the numerous valleys of York- shire, that unite to fall into the Humber, there is a similar admixture of the debris of strata composing the adjacent country, with rounded fragments of distant rocks ; and in the county of Durham I collected, within a few miles on the north of Darlington, pebbles of more than 20 varieties of slate and greenstone rocks, that occur no where nearer than the Lake district of Cumberland. In the street at Dar- lington, at the north end of the town, is a large block of granite, of the same variety with those at Shap, near Penrith. Blocks of the same granite lie also in the valley of Stokesley, and in the bed of the Tees at Bernard Castle, and near the highest points of the pass of Stainmoor Forest. Similar blocks are found also on the elevated plain of Sedgefield, on the south-east of Durham. In all these places they are mixed with rolled masses of various kinds of green-stone, and porphyry. The nearest point from which these blocks and pebbles could pos- sibly have been derived is the Lake district of Cumberland ; and the only place in England where this peculiar kind of granite occurs in GRAVEL NEAR NEWARK, DERBY, AND LITCHFIELD. 195 situ is the neighbourhood of Shap, just mentioned, from which they are at present separated by the lofty ridge and escarpment of Cross FeU and Stainmoor Forest. If the diflSculty of transporting them over this barrier be thought too great, the only remaining solution will be that they have come from Norway, like the other pebbles before mentioned, as abounding in the diluvium of the whole east coast of England. In the valley of the Trent, north-east of Newark, I have noticed a similar admixture of pebbles of primitive and transition rocks, with rounded and with angular chalk flints, that may have come from the wolds of Lincolnshire. At CheUaston also, on the south of Derby, higher up in the same valley, I found the gypsum quarries to be buried beneath a thick bed of diluvial clay, through which are dis- persed angular fragments of lias, ooUte, hard chalk, and chalk flints, drifted from no great distance, and confusedly mixed with highly rolled pebbles of quartz, and other transition rocks. Mr. Farey, in his Agricultural Eeport of Derbyshire, gives a long and interesting list of the deposits of gravel in that county, from which it appears, that fragments of all the English formations, from granite upwards to chalk, are accumulated abundantly in the form of diluvial gravel in that midland part of England, and I have myself found plenty of chalk flints in the gravel pits three miles north-west of the town of Derby. It is mentioned, in a paper by Mr. Aikin, on the gravel at Litch- field, in the 4th vol. of the Geological Transactions, that he found near that town pebbles of granite, syenite, greenstone, schist, lime- stone, quartz, chalcedony, and homstone : amongst these the pebbles c c 2 196 GRAVEL OF LEICESTER, RUTLAND, AND WARWICKSHIRE. of coralline limestone are most abundant, and like those of homstone appear to have been derived from the mountain limestone of Derbyshire. The Kev. W. D. Conybeare has noticed in the foUowing terms the superficial gravel beds of the midland districts of Leicester, Rut- land, and Buckinghamshire. " The gravel accumulated in the midland counties of England," says he, " is worthy of much more attention than it has hitherto re- ceived. These accumulations extend over the plains that lie between the north-west escarpment of the great oolite chain, and also over the low tract between these hills and the north-west escarpment of the chalk of Bucks, Herts, and Bedfordshire ; but they are more par- ticularly abundant in the former position, where extending many fathoms in depth, they often effectually conceal the subjacent strata, and sometimes by their acervation constitute decided hills. Tracts of this description are particularly abundant on the borders of But- land, Warwick, and Leicestershire. From Houghton on the Hill, near Leicester, to Braunston, near Daventry, proceeding by Market Harborough and Lutterworth, the traveller passes over a continuous bed of gravel for about 40 miles. Near Hinckley, great depositions of gravel, probably connected with this mass, are found, and afford pebbles containing specimens of the organic remains of most of the secondary strata in England. This deposition may probably be traced continuously to that of Shipstoli-on-Stour, most of the hillocks scat- tered over the lias and red marl tract, between Southam and Ship^ ston, being crowned with this gravel. " These accumulations of pebbles, promiscuously heaped together, CHALK FLINTS IN CENTRAL COUNTIES. 197 are composed of the wreck of rocks of the most distant ages, and which exist in their native state only in distant quarters of the island. Flints from the chalk formation, accompanied by rounded masses of hard chalk, and fragments of the different oolite rocks, seem, how- ever, decidedly predominant in Leicestershire ; and next to these in quantity are the granular quartz rock pebbles, resembling those from the Lickey, with others of white quartz, and dark coloured hard flinty slate. It would, however, be not difficult in many places, as for instance on the west of Market Harborough, and in the Valley of Shipston-«on-Stour, to form almost a complete geological series of English rocks from among these rounded fragments, which often occur in boulders of very considerable size. ^ The immense quantities of chalk flints which are scattered in this gravel at such a distance from the present limits of the chalk, seem decisively to indicate that this formation once occupied a much wider space than it does at present. A remarkable example of this kind may be seen near Northampton, in the gravel used for roads in Earl Spencer's Park at Althorp, which is dug in the adjoining parish of Great Brington, and in which there is a large proportion of chalk flints. Near Sywell also, six miles north-east of Northampton, on the oolite formation, there are some fields as thickly strewed over with fragments of pure white chalk, as the surface of stony arable land is usually with the substance of the subjacent rock. And in the south of Derbyshire, chalk flints are commonly found dispersed over the surface of the country." The accumulations of gravel on the low grounds along the valley of Buckingham and Bedford are principally composed of fragments 198 GRAVEL OF CAMBRIDGE, AND OF VALLEY OF THE THAMES. of the neighbouring rocks of oohte and chalk, with an occasional ad* mixture of quartz and other pebbles from the central counties. The latter occur also in Wliittlebury Forest near Northampton, and at Brackley. The late Sir Joseph Banks informed me he had observed pebbles of porphyry in the road gravel on the north side of the town of Dunstable. There is no nearer place from which these latter could have been derived than the porphyritic rocks of Charnwood Forest, in Leicestershire. Professor Sedgwick has ascertained, that the gravel beds on the summit of the Gk>gmagog Chalk Hills, near Cambridge, and on the hills adjoining towards Bedfordshire, as well as that in the valleys, contain not only the wreck of chalk strata, but also fragments of almost every formation that occurs in England ; amongst them he has found the joint of a basaltic pillar, between one and two feet long. Another striking example of a similar kind is afforded by the gravel of the valleys of the Thames from London to Oxford, and of the Cherwell and Evenlode, that fall into the Thames from the northern parts of Oxfordshire. (See Plate. XXVII.) I shall subjoin, in an appendix, a detailed account of this gravel, and of the state of the hiUs and vaUeys over which it is dispersed, extracted from a paper I have published on the Lickey HiU, in the 5th vol. of the G^eological Transactions. Its phenomena are in perfect unison with all the other cases I have been examining, and show the effect of a violent rush of waters from the north, which has drifted pebbles of quartz rock from the plains of Warwickshire, and other central counties, over the whole country intermediate between them and London, along the line of these three rivers ; and has mixed them up in each district with the GRAVEL AND BOULDERS IN THE WEST OF ENGLAND, 199 angular and slightly rolled detritus of the adjacent hills^ so that we have pebbles of the porphyry and greenstone of Chamwood Forest, at Abingdon, and Oxford ; and pebbles of the rocks near Birmingham, at Henley and Maidenhead, and in Hyde Park. It appears then we have evidence, that a current &om the north has drifted to their present place, along the whole east coast of England, that portion of the pebbles there occurring, which cannot have been derived from this country ; a certain number of them may possibly have come from the coast of Scotland, but the greater part have apparently been drifted &om the other side of the German Ocean. It appears also that there are proofs of a similar current having passed over the central and south-eastern parts of England ; and if we examine its western side, we find similar evidence of a violent rush of waters from the north, in the pebbles and blocks of granite and sienite of a very peculiar character, that have been drifted from the Criffle Mountain in Galloway, across Solway Frith, to the north base of the mountains of Cumberland, where I have seen them at a spot called Shalk, between Ireby and Carlisle ; whilst pebbles and large blocks of another kind of granite have been drifted in still greater numbers from Eavenglass, on the west of Cumberland, over the plains of Lancashire, Cheshire, and Stafibrdshire : their course is marked in Mr. Greenough's map of England, and they lie in masses of some tons weight on the west of the towns of Macclesfield and Stafford, and between Dudley and Bridgnorth. In an appendix, I shall subjoin the details of the evidence we find in the south-west of England, to show the excavation of valleys along the coast of Devon and Dorset, by the denuding force of the 200 VALLEY AND GRAVEL OF SOUTH-WEST OF ENGLAND. same diluvian waters, whose effects we have been tracing in the eastern^ western, and central parts of the island. The breadth and depth of these valleys, from Sidmouth to Bridport, may be seen, by reference to the views of their termination in the coast, at Plate XXV. whilst their origin and extent in the interior are marked in the map at Plate XXVI. The highest summits of this district are also strewed over vnth rolled pebbles of quartz, that must have come from some distant part of the country, before the excavation. of the valleys that now intersect it, and probably at the same time with, and by the agency of the same inundation from the north, which has drifted southwards the pebbles I have already traced over so large a portion of England. DILUVIAL PEBBLES AND CLAY ON CAMPSEY HILLS. 201 PROOFS OF DILUVIAL ACTION IN SCOTLAND. I will now proceed to consider the evidence we have, of a similar inundation producing similar effects in Scotland. Colonel Imrie, in his Geological Account of the Campsey Hills, published in the second volume of the Transactions of the Wemerian Society, page 35, has described a series of phenomena resulting from diluvial action, in the southern district of Stir- lingshire. He refers the removal of certain portions of the trap-rocks, which generally form the incumbent stratum of the Campsey district, to the effect of heavy and rapid currents of water, and finds many parts of their actual surface to be strewed over with an admixture of drifted clay and rolled pebbles, analogous to that which occurs along the east coast of England from Essex to Northumberland, and to bear marks of violence from the friction of heavy masses of stone that have been drifted over it. " In all situations of this district," says he, " where the trap has disappeared, the vegetable or surface soil rests upon a strongly tenacious blue clay, much mixed with water- worn stones, and this blue clay rests upon sandstone. Among the water- worn stones imbedded in tlie clay, I seldom found specimens of the native rocks D D 202 VALLEYS EXCAVATED. SCRATCHES ON SURFACE OF ROCKS. of the district : those which I examined consisted mostly of rocks, generally deemed of the oldest formations, such as quartz, por- phyries, granites, &c. ; the native beds of which are far distant to the north and west of that part of the country. " The disappearance of the trap in some of the glens and narrow vales seems to have been produced by the attrition of heavy bodies, set in motion by a great force of water in rapid movement. " In some of the glens and narrow vales where the trap had not entirely disappeared, I perceived upon its surface strong indications and marks of attrition. In some places the surface of the trap was smooth, and had evidently received a considerable degree of polish ; and this poUsh is almost always seen marked by long lineal scratches. In other places there appeared narrow grooves, apparently formed by the rapid movement of large masses of rock having swept along its surface. "In the eastern part of the district there occurs a small elevated plain, slightly undulated. Here the surface of the trap in some places had lost its covering of soil, and was left bare for inspection. Upon this plain I again detected some of these scratches. Upon the surface there were scattered immense masses of trap, which, from their apparent weight, seemed perfectly capable of forming these scratches and grooves above described, had they been put in motion and impelled along the surface. Upon examining some of these huge masses, I found their surfaces scratched and worn in such a way as to prove sufficiently indicative to me, that they had SIR J. HALL. PEBBLES AND SCRATCHES NEAR EDINBURGH. 203 been long subjected to attrition in water ; and I also observed, that many of them presented their principal or most projecting angle towards the west, and sometimes towards the north-west ; which, ac- cording to my opinion, strongly implies the direction of the current which left them in the position in which they now rest. It is not the object of this paper to dip into the causes of these phenomena ; but that such currents, as were capable of the effects which I have endeavoured to describe, have overflowed the surface of our globe, is to me clearly evident ; and these scratches and grooves here mentioned are some of the minor, but clear proofs of its action." In a very able and ingenious paper by Sir James Hall, in vol. vii. of the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, he has recorded his discovery of similar traces of the action of a mighty current on the surface of the hills and valleys near that city. These districts are not only strewed over with the gravelly wreck of rocks that have been drifted to a great distance from their native bed by the force of violent waters ; but Sir James has also observed channels and furrows, which he calls dressings, still remaining on the surface of the hard rocks over which these waters passed, driving before them blocks and fragments of every substance that lay in the line of their course, and also excavating deep valleys. Where a mass of rock has been followed underground to where its surface has been protected by a covering of clay, it is found to resemble a wet road along which a number of heavy and irregular bodies have been recently dragged ; indicating that every block that {)assed had left D D 2 204 EFFECT OF AN INUNDATION ON COSTORPHINE HILL. its trace behind. Occasionally the scratches deviate from the general direction, but the majority agree in parallelism with each other, and with the general direction not only of the scoops and grooves of the rock upon which they occur, but also of the ridges and large features of the district. The shape of many of the valleys, moreover, is exactly similar to that of those we see excavated by water on a sand- bank in a running brook ; whilst the form and relative position of the hills resemble those presented by the residuary portions of the same recent sand-banks in which the brook cuts out its little furrows. In a small map of the immediate neighbourhood of Costorphine Hill, on the west of Edinburgh, he gives in detail fifteen examples, within a circle of two miles in diameter, each exhibiting both the large and small features which indicate the action of water flowing with violence along the surface, and carrying large blocks of stone along with it, and points out many others in the adjacent country ; and after showing that it is quite impossible to refer these effects to any causes now in action, arrives at the following conclusion. " AU the diluvian facts in this neighbourhood that have come under my observation concur in denoting one inundation, overwhelming the solid mass of this district, this inundation being the last catastrophe to which it has been exposed." The direction of the current producing these effects in the immediate neighbourhood of Edinburgh has been from the west, and seems to have been influenced by the local circumstances of the hills enclosing the estuary of the Forth ; but in the neighbourhood MAIN CURRENT IN SCOTLAND FROM THE NORTH-WEST. 206 of Stirling, and on the east coast of Berwickshire, and generally where deviations have not arisen &om local causes, it appears to have been from the north-west*. * The whole of this paper is so very accurate and satisfactory, that I strongly recommend the perusal of it to the attention of every one who has the smallest doubts as to the evidence there is to prove that the surface of the earth owes its last form not to the gradual action of existing causes, but to the excavating force of a suddenly over- whelming and transient mass of waters. 206 SCRATCHES NEAR LLANRWST. GRAVEL IN SOUTH WALES. EVIDENCE OF DILUVIAL ACTION IN WALES. In North Wales Mr. Underwood has noticed a similar effect of diluvial scratches and scorings on the surface of the slate-rock, where it is immediately covered with a very thick bed of gravel, in a section of the new Irish road at Dinas HiD, about one mile east of Bettws y coed, near Llanrwst, and about a mile and a half east of the bridge called Waterloo Bridge. It is a case completely similar to those I have quoted from Sir James Hall, and Colonel Imrie. The deposits of gravel I have already mentioned in the Vale of Clwydd, and the valleys excavated in the hiUs adjacent to it, are equally of diluvial origin; and the whole low country of South Wales, from the estuary of the Severn for several miles inland, is strewed over irregularly with large boulders and beds of gravel, derivative by diluvial actions from the mountains that flank this district on the north*. The surface and sides of these mountains are also intersected by very deep and narrow vaDeys of denudation ; a good example of which is afforded by the valleys of the Tafl^ the Ebwy, and the Neath. ♦ Neai* PenDergare, in the parish of Langerelach, about 5 miles north of Swansea, Mr. Dillwyn pointed out to me large blocks of mountain limestone, some of them 6 feet square, in the midst of gravel, which is chiefly composed of the debris of coal measures. The nearest limestone rock on the north of this spot, is at the distance of 10 miles. VALLEYS EXCAVATED IN THE NORTH ANI> EAST OF IRELAND. 207 EVIDENCE OF DILUVIAL ACTION IN IRELAND. With respect to Ireland^ I shall adduce a few facts only, to show that it presents diluvial phenomena altogether identical with those in England and Scotland. In the Philosophical Transactions for 1808, Dr. Richardson has pointed out the effect of mighty currents of water in excavating valleys, many hundred feet deep, in the county of Antrim, and adjoining parts of the north of Ireland; and Mr. Weaver, in his very valuable Memoir on the Gteology of the East of Ireland, in the fifth volume of the Geological Transactions, p. 294, has discussed with his usual accuracy the subject of the excavation of valleys, and the gravel produced by denudation in the counties of Wicklow and Wexford. " It seems impossible," says he, " to consider the form of any con- siderable portion of the surface of the earth, or to reflect even upon the nature and disposition of its alluvial tracts, without recognizing the powerful agency of an agitated fluid in a state of retrocession. The abrupt and curved outlines, the fractured surfaces and de- nudations of extensive tracts, the sinuosities of glens, defiles, and valleys, the salient and re-entering angles, the plains, all betray its course and moulding force. To ascribe such appearances to a gradual degradation produced by the influence of the atmosphere and the current of streams, seems to be assuming causes wholly 208 BLOCKS OF GRANITE AND LIMESTONE GRAVEL. inadequate to such effects/' '^ The flanks of the central part of the mountain chain of Wicklow and Carlow are strewed with native debris ; and these are dispersed over lower ranges for a distance of some miles from the central group, and sometimes under circum- stances that claim particular attention. Cronebane Hill (being com- posed of slate) bears upon its summit a boulder of granite (called motty-stone) 9i feet high, and 42 feet in circumference, and the sides of the hill are also strewed with boulders of granite nearly as large. How then did these attain their present position? The nearest granite rock is that which extends from the eastern bank of the Avonmore, towards West Aston Hill ; but this is rery dissimilar in aspect to the granite boulders on Cronebane. The next granite in point of distance is that of Ballincarrig, on the banks of the Avonbeg; yet in both these instances the granite rock is found in a situation several hundred feet lower than the summit of Cronebane." " Whence are the limestone, gravel, and marl derived, which we find distributed along the coast of the counties of Wicklow and Wexford? The nearest visible limestone rock in the northern quarter is that which occurs at Wiiliamstown and Booterstown, on the southern side of the bay of Dublin ; and to the southward, the first rock of this description that appears is on the south coast of the town of Wexford.'' After describing other phenomena of the same kind, he proceeds : " It is worthy of observation, that many of these deposits of lime- stone pebbles, gravel, and marl, are situated at distances from two to ten miles from the nearest part of the continuous calcareous tract. RIDOES OF GRAVEL ON LIMESTONE PLAINS OF IRELAND. 209 and at an elevation reaching to two, three, and four hundred feet higher than the existing surface of the Umestone rock itself/' ^ The limestone field also abounds in rolled calcareous masses, pebbles, gravel, sand, and marl, often raised into hillocks or long extended ridges, which seem to owe their form to the action of eddies and currents. There is scarcely any part of the extensive Umestone tract in the centre of Ireland, that is not more or less marked by them. Sometimes these ridges appear like regular mounds, the work of art, forming a continued Une of several miles in extent: that which passes by Maryborough, in the Queen's County, is a remarkable instance of this kind; and similar mounds, hillocks, and ridges, occur also in the counties of Meath, Westmeath, Kildare, Carlow, and other portions of the limestone field, in which the calcareous gravel and sand frequently exhibit a stratified disposition, the alter- nate layers being very distinct from each other.*' — Further details as to these ridges of limestone gravel may be seen in the Irish Bog Reports. It is needless to adduce further evidence than this to show the efiects of diluvial action to be as unequivocally displayed in Ireland as in other parts of the British Islands. I do not recollect to have seen in England examples of such distinct and lofty ridges of diluvial gravel, as those in the limestone plains of Ireland, excepting in the level district of Holdemess, on the east coast of Yorkshire. Here there are similar ridges, known locally by the name of barfs, and composed chiefly of rolled chalk flints, and a few primitive pebbles (apparently Norwegian). The most remarkable of these is near Bransburton, on the north-east of Beverley : it stretches across £ E 210 GRAVEL RIDGES IN HOLDERNESS AND NORTHUMBERLAND. the plain like a vast chesil-bank on the sear-shore^ being about 50 feet high, and 100 broad at the base, and nearly a Airlong in length, and has at first sight the appearance of an artificial military mound of enormous magnitude : it bears marks of having been applied to mi- Utary purposes, but is clearly of dUuvial origin. There is also in the county of Northumberland a similar narrow ridge of dUuvial gravel, resembling a long military vallum, which runs some distance, nearly parallel to the great north road, a few miles on the north of Alnwick ; it is on nearly the highest point of an elevated plain, and is intersected near its south extremity by the public road, and in several other places by gaps that have been cut throng it to enter the adjacent fields. I hope hereafter to be enabled to give a more detailed account of this gravel bank, which I expect to receive from my friend W. C. Trevelyan, Esq. of Wallington. DILUVIAL GRAVEL IN FRANCE. 211 PROOFS OF DILUVIAL ACTION ON THE CONTINENT. M. Cuvier and Brongniart, in their Geological Map of the Basin of Paris, show that the actual form and position of many of the hills in this district, especially on the side of Fontainbleau, where they stand insulated, and in rows parallel to the main direction of the vall'jy of the Seine^ can only be referred to the denuding force of a transient mass of waters. To the same waters must be referred also the pebbles of granite, and other distant primitive rocks that occur in this same neighbourhood, mixed with the wreck of the adjacent hills ; and I must again refer my readers to M. Brongniart's excellent treatise on the natural history of water, in the 14th vol. of the Dic- tionnaire des Sciences Naturelles, for further and abundant evidence of a violent deluge having produced the actual form of the hills and valleys, and superficial deposits of loam and gravel that occur in France. In Buffon's History of the Epochs of Nature^, we find his description also of the state of the valleys in France, and of their fonns, as derived from the excavating force of a mass of waters, to be in perfect har- mony with those of the other authors I have been just quoting. In Italy M. Brongniart has described the summit of the Superga, near Turin, to be covered with blocks of serpentine^ and accu- • Vol. Xn. p. 169, Deux Pont edit. 1782. E E 2 212 DILUVIAL BOULDERS IN ITALY AND SWITZERLAND. mulations of sand and gravel (which he calls ^^ terrains de transport anciens/' as compared with the postdiluvian detritus of the floods of modem rivers), reposing on the regular strata of that steep and almost insulated mountain. These blocks can only have arrived at their present place by being drifted from some part of the distant Alpine chain that encircles the upper extremity of the valley of the Po. De Saussure has recorded a valuable series of observations on the effects of what he calls the debacle, or breaking up and transport of massive rocks and gravel, by an enormous rush of waters, in Switzerland. The most remarkable of these is the transport of blocks of granite from Mont Blanc * to the Jura Mountains, across the space which is now the Lake and Valley of Geneva. These eflfects appear to be only a larger example of that same diluvial action which we have been tracing in other countries ; and which has operated in Switzerland on a scale proportionate to the mag- nitude of the Alpine masses on which it had to exert itself. For the detail of these effects, I must refer to Saussure's own descriptions, and to Sir James Hall's excellent paper in the Edinburgh Philo- sophical Transactions, before quoted ; in which he offers some very ingenious and not improbable conjectures, as to the manner in * These blocks lie on the Jura Mountains, at an elevation of 2000 feet above the Lake of Geneva. Their size in some cases amounts, as in the Valley of Monetier, upon the Saleve Mountain, to 1200 cubic feet ; and in the case of those on the Coteau de Boissy to 2S50, and even to 10,S96 cubic feet, which is the measure of the block called Pierre k Martin. VALLEYS OF DENUDATION IN CENTRAL GERMANY. 21S which these stupendous operations which have taken place in Switser- land were brought about. Baron Von Schlotheim, in his Nachtrage zur Fetrefactenkunde, 18S2, describes, in the following terms, the valleys of denudation which traverse the plains of Saxony, on the south-west of Leipsig. And I remember to have been myself struck with them as being very remarkable in the vicinity of Jena, where they afford some of the most decided examples of deep valleys and gorges excavated entirely by diluvial action which I am acquainted with in Germany. ** The deep narrow valleys and defiles prevailing in the neigh- bourhood of Jena, in the valley of the Muhl, and further towards Drakendorf and Eostritz, clearly show the power with which the ancient waters raged when these channels were excavated, in which at present flow the Saale, the Elster, and the adjoining smaller streams. It is manifest that during the course of this operation large tracts of the limestone superincumbent on the g3rpsum, as well as of the new red sandstone, were torn and swept away." M. Schlotheim is disposed to consider these as local occurrences, and to attribute them to the bursting, at successive periods, of the barrier of some fresh-water lakes. But this solution is in- admissible, unless we assume the existence of similar lakes at the head of every stream, and of every valley in the world ; for there are none in which the effects of similar denudation are not apparent : and Mr. Weaver, in his comment on this passage, most judiciously remarks, that lakes in the present course of nature have a tendency to fill up, by a gradual accumulation on their bottoms, 21 4 VALLEYS NOT EXCAVATED BY CAUSES IN ACTION, and not to burst their barriers ; and that whatever antediluvian lakes and inland seas may have formerly existed, the gorges and defiles by which their waters were discharged can be referred to no physical cause at present in action, but were excavated by some extraneous and more mighty power than the waters of the lakes themselves ; and " where," says he, " is such a power to be found, but in the agency of the diluvian waters ?" BLOCKS DRIFTED FROM THE NORTH TO LAKE HURON. 215 DILUVIAL ACTION IN NORTH AMERICA. Dr. Bigsby, in his Memoir on the Geography and Geology of Lake Huron, which is about to appear in the 2d part of the first volume of the new series of the G^logical Transactions of London, has traced in America the similar action of a violent flood of waters rushing also from the north, and drifting from thence blocks of various primitive rocks over the secondary and transition formations that compose the basin of that lake. He also notices in this same district, effects similar to the diluvial denudations in Europe, in the excavation of valleys, the separation of islands from the mainland, the formation of crags and serrated ridges of rocks, and the wearing away of the highest summits ; and shows that these cannot be attributed to any causes now in action, or to any gradual subsidence of the waters of the lake, but must be referred to the great debacle of a flood advancing from the north. The same waters, he adds, have accumulated immense deposits of sand and gravel, in heaps and ridges, at various levels of the main shores and islands in the lake. These travelled fragments are .foreign to the district they pervade, and are almost exclusively of the older class of rocks ; granite, gneiss, mica slate, greenstone, porphyry, sienite, and amygdaloids, which occur not in the neighbourhood, but may be shown to have come from the north, 216 POSTDILUVIAN DETRITUS. and can many of them be traced to their original source in that direction. Between Lake Erie also and Lake Huron, he states the beaches and woods to be strewed with masses of gneiss, porphyries, conglomorates, and greenstones ; and that similar blocks appear on the north coast of Lake Erie, which itself is for the most part com* posed of a series of clay-cliffs and sand-hills. He moreover draws an accurate distinction between these diluvial drifting^ of the great debacle, and the small and Usually angular debris of strata produced by causes now in existence: this latter remains unmoved nearly in the place in which it is formed, at the base of the parent-clifis from which it has fallen. Thus the opposite shores of Felletau, on Lake Huron, being of dLSerent formations, the one limestone, the other greenstone, each is lined with its own debrisi and without admixture. In the fifth volume, number 2, of Silliman's American Journal of Science, he also gives an excellent example of another species of postdiluvian operations, viz. the forming of terraces, like the parallel roads described by Dr. Macculloch, at Glenroy, in Scotland, around the edges of lakes and on the flanks of great rivers, at considerable elevations above the level of their present waters : terraces of this kind are not uncommon in North America. The case I now quote is that of the valley of St Etienne, near Malbay, in which Dr. Bigsby accompanies his description with a map ; by which it appears that this valley has been a postdiluvian lake, which has lowered its level at successive periods, by the breaking down at distant intervals of the gorge through which the Malbay river now flows into the \ PARALLEL TERRACES IN EUROPE— BOULDERS IN NOVA SCOTIA. 217 St Lawrence. The parallel terraces that encircle this dry valley show the number of successive stages by which the bursting of the gorge took place, and are exactly similar to those engraved in Dr. MaccuUoch's paper above quoted, in the fourth volume of the Geological Transactions*. Sir Alexander Croke has informed me, that the summits of some of the highest hills in Nova Scotia, being composed of slate, are strewed over with large blocks of granite. The present position of these fragments can only be accounted for by supposing them to have been drifted from the nearest granite districts by the same rush of waters that transported those described by Dr. Bigsby in the districts of Lake Huron and Lake Erie. And Dr. Meade, of * I have myself observed a similar appearance of successive terraces flanking the valleys of the Rhine below Basel ; of the Salza, at Coiling, on the south of Saltzburg ; of the Iser, at Munich ; and on the sides of many other rivers that descend from the Alps. These terraces are all of postdiluvial origin, and are often formed on diluvial gravel, and indicate either the shores of lakes that have at successive periods burst their barriers, and lowered their level, or become entirely dry; or, where they occur on the sides of rivers, they are cli£fs or escarpments cut in diluvial gravel by floods of extraordinary height, resulting either from unusual tempests, or from the bursting I have just mentioned of lakes in the higher districts from which these rivers are supplied. The examples here mentioned, of the bursting of lakes, militate at first sight against the observation I have quoted from Mr. Weaver, that modem lakes have not a tendency to burst their barriers, but to fill up ; still, however, he is right in his general rule, that such is the ordinary course of nature with respect to them. The bursting of modem lakes is of rare occurrence ; and wherever it has happened, there is evidence of the fact, in its leaving parallel terraces of gravel on its ancient shores; and when we consider bow very few the valleys are in which such terraces occur (the neighbourhood of Glen Roy, for example, being the only instance we know in Britain), it is obvious that these few cases are but rare exceptions to the general rule which Mr. Weaver has laid down. F F 218 BOITLDERS IN NEW YORK-i^GOLD SAND OF SOUTH AllEBICA. Philadelphia, in his account of the ^mineral waters of Ballaston and Saratoga, in the state of New York, about 200 miles north of that city, states, " That the surface of the ground, which is here composed of shale and limestone, is covered with large insulated masses of stone, commonly called boulders, consisting of large blocks of quarts, and rolled masses of other primitive rocks. These (he adds) must have been transmitted from the neighbouring mountains, as they are not attached to the rocks in situ, and have no connexion with them : they are found in every country, and only prove the action of an extensive flood of waters/' In -this dispersion of blocks of granite and beds of gravel in North America, we have evidence of a debacle by the diluvian waters in the western hemisphere, analogous to that we have been examining in Europe ; and the presence of the bones of elephants, and other animals which are common to the gravel of both con- tinents, shows that the time of its formation was in each case the same. In South America the sand and gravel in which they find the tin of Mexico, and such extensive deposits of grains of gold and precious stones, are composed of the diluvial wreck of mountains, in which, as their matrix, these minerals were once imbedded, and where they would have remained to the present hour, had they not been broken down and reduced to sand and gravel by the same diluvial waters that have in a similar manner overspread Europe with the detritus of its own mountains. I have already mentioned metalliferous examples of this detritus in the stream tin ore of Corn- wall, and the lead ore that is similarly circumstanced in the Vale of GOLD SAND IN ENGLAND, SCOTLAND, WALES, AND IBELAND. 219 Clwydd. In the same gravel of Cornwall, and in that of Devon, Wales, and Scotland, small pebbles and grains of gold have occa^- sionally been found; and in Ireland the gold mine that was worked a few years since in the county of Wicklow was simply a stream-work, in which the gold was dispersed in the form of small pebbles and sand, through a bed of gravel *. * For an account of this gold mine, see an excellent paper by Mr. Weaver, in the Transactions of the Geological Society, voL v. p. S07. F F 2 220 GOLD SAND OF AFRICA AND ASIA. PKOOFS OF DILUVIAL ACTION IN AFRICA AND ASIA. The gold that occurs so largely in various parts of Africa is chiefly found, like that last spoken of, in the state of small rolled grains disseminated through diluvial sand and gravel ; so also is the tin, which is so abundant in the peninsula of Malacca, and in fianca, and other islands adjacent to Smnatra, being simply diluvial or stream tm, Uke that of the gravel of ComwalL In Hindoostan, near Bombay, agates and onyx stones are col- lected as pebbles from diluvial gravel beds; whilst many of the plains in the interior of India contain amidst their gravel rolled pebbles of copper ore, in quantity sufficient to send large supplies of malachite to the eastern markets. The greater part of the diamonds also of India, as well as of South America, and the precious stones of Ceylon, are found dispersed in the state of small sand and pebbles through diluvial gravel. In the same kind of gravel also are found the topaz pebbles of Cairn Gorm, in Scotland. The erroneous idea of the old mineralogists, that. the sand of all riveri^ in the world contains gold, is true only of those which flow through countries that are strewed with the wreck of mountains, through which gold had been once disseminated, i. e. of primitive and transition rocks ; and as most great rivers of the wodd have their origin in rocks of this kind, the very general dispersion of grains of gold along their course adds another fact to the many I have already advanced, to show the effects of diluvial action to be co-extensive with the surface of the whole earth. ALPS AND CARPATHIANS HAVE BEEN UNDER WATER. 221 PROOFS OF INUNDATION AT HIGH LEVELS. It has been asserted by writers of high authority, and even by Cuvier, that the occurrence of the diluvian remains of the larger 5^niTnak is limited to the lower regions and great valleys of the world ; and an inference has been drawn, that the waters of the flood, by which they perished, did not cover the summits of the higher mountains*. Against this hypothesis the following facts appear decisive. 1st. The blocks of granite, which have been transported from the heights of Mont Blanc to the Jura mountains, could not have been moved from their parent mountain^ which is the highest in Europe, had not that mountain been below the level of the water by which they were so transported. 2d. The Alps and Carpathians, and all the other mountain re- gions I have ever visited in Europe, bear in the form of their com- ponent hills the same evidence of having been modified by the force of water, as do the hills of the lower regions of the earth ; and in their valleys also, where there was space to afibrd it a lodgement, I have always found diluvial gravel of the same nature and origin with that of the plains below, and which can be clearly distinguished from the postdiluvian detritus of mountain torrents or rivers. * D'ailleurs rinondation qui les a enfouis ne s^est point 61ey6e au-dessua des grandes chains de montagnes, puisque les couches qu'elle a d6pos6e8 et qui recouvrent les osse- mens ne se trouvent que dans des plaines peu ^lev^es, — Cuvier, vol. L p. 202. 222 BONES IN SOUTH AMERICA AT ELEVATION ABOVE 7000 FEET, 3(L With regard to the bones of animals that perished by this great inundation, although they have not yet been discovered in the high alpine gravel beds of Europe (which is but a negative fact), we have in America the bones of the mastodon at an elevation of t 7800 feet above the sea, in the Camp de G6ants, near Santa Fe de Bagota ; and another species of the same genus in the CordiUenu^, found by Humboldt, at the elevation of 7200 feet, near the volcano of Imbaburra, in the kingdom of Quito. Mr. Humboldt has also found the tooth of the fossil elephant, resembling that of the northern hemisphere, at Hue-huetoca, on the plain of Mexico; and if the animal remains of this era have not yet been discovered at such heights as these in Europe, let it be recollected that we have no elevated mountain plains like those in America ; that our highest mountains are but narrow peaks, and ridges of small extent, when compared with the low country that surrounds them ; and that if it were proved (which it is not) that the animals inhabited these highest points, it is more than probable that their carcases would have been drifted oS, as the greater mass of their gravel has been, into the lower levels of the adjacent country. But in central Asia the bones of horses and deer have been found at an elevation of 16,000 feet above the sea, in the Hymalaya mountains. The bones I am now speaking of are at the Royal College of Surgeons in London, and were sent last year to Sir E. Home, by Captain W. S. Webb, who procured them from the Chinese Tartars of Daba, who assured him that they were found in the north face of the snowy ridge of Eylas, in lat. 32, at a spot which Captain Webb calculates to be not less than 16,000 feet high : they are only obtained from the BONES ON HYMALAYA CHAIN AT 16,000 FEET. 228 masses that fall with the avalanches from the regions of perpetual snow, and are therefore said by the natives to have fallen from the douds, and to be the bones of genii. Those I have seen are the astragalus, head of femur, and portions of humerus of a small species of horse, and some bones of deer ; their medullary cavities and cancelli are lined, or entirely filled with white crystalline carbonate of lime, beautifully transparent, and the bone itself is white, and very absorbent to the tongue ; their matrix is a grey calcareous sand, adhering firmly to the bones, and interspersed with small concretions of carbonate of lime. There were also found with them the bones of bears*. The occurrence of these bones at such an enormous elevation in the regions of eternal snow, and consequently in a spot now unfre- quented by such animals as the horse and deer, can, I think, be ex- plained only by supposing them to be of antediluvian origin, and that the carcases of the animals were drifted to their present place, and lodged in sand^ by the diluvial waters. This appears to me the most probable solution that can be sug- gested; and, should it prove the true one, will add a still more decisive fact to those of the granite blocks drifted from the heights of Mont Blanc to the Jura, and the bones of diluvial animals found by Humboldt on the elevated plains of South America, to show that '< all the high hills and the mountains under the whole heavens were covered,"' at the time when the last great physical change by an inundation of water took place, over the surface of the whole earth. * For further particulars^ received from Captain Webb, respecting these bones, see the Quarterly Review, No. 57, p. 155. S24 MR. GREENOUGirS EVIDENCE OF ONE UNIVERSAL DELUGE. Thus far I have produced a various and, in my judgment, incon- trovertible body of facts, to show that the whole earth has been sub- jected to a recent and universal inundation. The same opinion is maintained in Mr. Greenough's Examination of the First Principles of Geology, where he concludes his admirable summary of phenomena derivative from diluvial action, in all quarters of the earth, with the following important passages. ^ The universal dLSusion of alluvial sand, gravel, &c. proves that at some time or other an inundation has taken place in all countries ; and the presence of similar alluvial de- posits, both organic and inorganic, in neighbouring or distant islands, though consisting often of substances foreign to the rocks of which the islands are respectively composed, makes it highly probable at least, that these deposits are products of the same inundation. The universal occurrence of mountains and valleys, and the symmetry which pervades their several branches and inosculations, are further proofs, not only that a deluge has swept over every part of the globe, but probably the same deluge.'* He also shows it to be highly pro- bable, ^ that the order of things immediately preceding the deluge closely resembled the present order, and was suddenly interrupted by a general flood, which swept away the quadrupeds from the con- tinents, tore up the solid strata, and reduced the surface to a state of ruin : but this disorder was of short duration ; the mutilated earth did not cease to be a planet ; animals and plants, similar to those which had perished, once more adorned its surface ; and nature again sub- mitted to that regular system of laws, which has continued uninter- rupted to the present day." OPINIONS OF CATCOTT, JONES, HUTCHINSON, AND CUVIER. 225 In the works of Catcott, Jones, and Hutchinson *, a mass of strong evidence is brought forward to show the agency of diluvial currents in excavating valleys, over large portions of the surface of this island. And M, Cuvier, in his Essay on the Theory of the Earth, expresses his conviction, that if there be any one fact thoroughly established by geological investigations, it is that of the low antiquity of the present state of the surface of the earth, and the circumstance of its having been overwhelmed at no very distant period by the waters of a transient deluge ; and although Voltaire may have indulged himself in denying the possibility of such an event f , and Linna&us have overlooked its evidences :}:, the discoveries of modem geology, founded on the accurate observation of natural phenomena, prove to ^ See Catcott, on the Deluge, 1768; Jones's Physiological Disquisitions; and Hutchinson's Works, Vol. XII. -f ^'Y a-t-il eu un temps ou le globe a 6t6 enti^rement inonde ? Cela est physique- ment impossible.'^ — ^Voltaire, Diet. PhiL Art. Inondation. % The opinion expressed by Linnaeus, that he could discover in the earth's struc- ture no proofs whatever of a deluge amidst abundant evidences of very high antiquity, was obvious to be adopted by an accurate observer, at a time when it was attempted to explain all the phenomena of stratification and organic remains, by reference to this single catastrophe ; the infant state of geology at that time rendered it almost impos- sible to distinguish the phenomena which are strictly of diluvial origin from those which must be referred to other and more ancient causes: but the advances that have since been made in this science have established a numerous and widely varied series of facts, a certain class of which bears as unequivocal evidence of the existence of a deluge at no very distant period, as the phenomena of stratification afiTord on the other hand of more ancient revolutions afiTecting our planet during, the time in which its strata were deposited ; and it has been from want of accuracy in distinguishing between these two distinct classes of facts that errors have arisen, such as those into which Linneeus fell. For an explanation of the manner in which these natural appearances may be reconciled with the Mosaic accoimt of the creation, I must again refer to my inaugural lecture, before quoted. O G 226 SUMMARY OF FACTS PROVING AN UNIVERSAL DELUGE. demonstration, that there has been an universal inundatioa of the earth, though they have not yet shown by what physical cause it was produced: and I cannot better conclude this part of my subject than by extracting from my inaugural lecture, before alluded to, the following summary of the facts to which, in addition to those af- forded by the interior of caves and fissures, I now appeal They are as follows : I. The general shape and position of hiUs and valleys ; the former having their sides and surfaces universally modified by the action of violent waters, and presenting often the same alternation of salient and retiring angles that mark the course of a common river; and the latter, in those cases which are called valleys of denundation, being attended with such phenomena as show them to owe their existence entirely to excavation under the action of a flood of waters. II. The almost universal confluence and successive inosculations of minor valleys with each other, and final termination of them all iti some main trunk which conducts their waters to the sea ; and the rare interruption of their courses by transverse barriers producing lakes. III. The occurrence of detached insulated masses of horizontal strata, called outliers, at considerable distances from the beds of which they once evidently formed a continuous part, and fi'om which they have been separated at a recent period by deep and precipitous valleys of denudation. IV. The immense deposits of gravel that occur occasionally on the summit and slopes of hills, and almost universally in' valleys over iSUMMARY OF FACTS PROVING AN UNIVERSAL DELUGE. 227 the whole world ; in situations to which no torrents or rivers that are now in action could ever have drifted them. V. The nature of this gravel, being in part composed of the wreck of the neighbouring hills, and partly of fragments and blocks that have been transported from very distant regions. VI. The nature and condition of the organic remains peculiar to this gravel ; many of them being identical with, and others not di- stinguishable from, species that now exist, and very few having under- gone the smallest process of mineralization. Their condition resembles that of common grave bones, being in so recent a state and having undergone so little decay, that if the records of history, and the cir- cumstances that attend them, did not absolutely forbid such a sup- position, we should be inclined to attribute them even to a much later period than the deluge : and certainly there is in my opinion no single fact connected with them, that should lead us to date their origin from any more ancient era*. VII. The total impossibility of referring any one of these ap- pearances to the effect of ancient or modem rivers, or any other ♦ This gravel contains also rolled fragments of various organic bodies^ more ancient than those we are now considering, and which were embedded in the strata of whose detritus the gravel is composed ; e. g, belemnites, corals, oyster-shells, from the chalk and oohte formations, &c.: these are wholly distinct from the organic remains, which are peculiar to diluvium; the latter being chiefly the bones of quadrupeds that inhabited the land, and the shells of molluscse that inhabited the sea at the period immediately preceding the inundation, by which the gravel in question was formed. The shells accumulated in the diluvial gravel of Suffolk and Norfolk, and known locally by the name of Crag, are an example of the remains I now allude to. They appear to be marine shells, drifted inland from the bottom of the antediluvian ocean, by the same currents that produced the gravel through which they are now dispersed, in the cliffs along the coast, and over the interior of these counties ; and with very few excep- tions, they agree in species with shells that at present inhabit the adjacent seas. o g2 228 SUMMARY OF FACTS PROVING AN UNIVERSAL DELUGE. causes, that are now, or appear ever to have been in action, since the retreat of the diluvian waters. VIII. The analogous occurrence of similar phenomena in almost all the regions of the world that have hitherto been scientifically investigated, presenting a series of facts that are uniformly consistent with the hypothesis of a contemporaneous and diluvial origin. IX. The perfect harmony and consistency in the circumstances of those few changes that now go on, (e. g. the formation of ravines and gravel by mountain torrents ;' the limited depth and continual growth of peat bogs ; the formation of tufa, sand-banks, deltas, coral reefs, and streams of lava ; and the filling up of lakes, estuaries, and marshes,) with the hypothesis which dates the commencement of all such operations at a period not more ancient than that which our received chronologies assign to the deluge. All these facts, whether considered collectively or separately, present such a conformity of proofs, tending to establish the uni- versality of a recent inundation of the earth, as no difficulties or objections that .have hitherto arisen are in any way sufficient to overrule. In the full confidence that these difficulties will at length be removed by the further extension of physical observations, we may for the present rest satisfied with the argument that numberless phenomena have been already ascertained, which without the admis- sion of an universal deluge, it seems not easy, nay, utterly impossible to explain. POSTSCRIPT. As I have ventured in this work to controvert the opinions ex- pressed by M. Cuvier in his first edition, on points of high import- ance, in relation to the chronology of the animal remains contained in the caves, fissures, and diluvian gravel ; I am much gratified that the recent publication of the fourth volume of his second edition enables me to subjoin the testimony of that illustrious naturalist to the correctness of my views on the points in question, and to add the flattering sanction of his full approbation of the description I have published of the cave at Kirkdale, and of the important inferences I have founded upon its phenomena. At page 224fy discussing the date of the osseous breccia of Gibraltar, and on the coast of the Mediterranean, which he had before considered to be more recent than the bones in the caves and diluvian gravel, M. Cuvier says, " Je reviens done k Vid4e que je n'avois ose embrasser autrefois ; celle que ces d6p6ts des br^ches osseuses ont 6t6 formes aux depens de la population contemporaire des rhinoc6ros et des 616phans fossiles." And again at page 486, ^^ les br^ches osseuses paroissent aujour- 230 OPINION OF M. CUVIER. dTiui sous iin point de vue d'un int6r6t tout nouveau ; le nombre des esp^ces manifestement inconnues et des esp^ces au moins 6trang6res, qu'elles recfelent, s'est beaucoup accru/* " Ces esp^ces in- connues reculent Vkge d'une grande partie de ces br^ches bien au del^ de r6poque oil on les croyoit fornixes, et portent a les regarder au moins comme contemporaines des couches qui renferment les os d'616phant, de rhinoceros, et d'hippopotame/' This is precisely the evidence to which I appealed in my first account of Kirkdale, as that which would be decisive of the antiquity I wished to establish with respect to the bones of the osseous breccia at Gibraltar, and in other similar fissures. With respect also to the relative ages of the bones found in caverns, and in diluvium, M . Cuvier admits the same conclusion, page 486. "Les cavemes a ossemens r6clament aujourd'hui la m6me an- tiquity. Farmi les nombreux camassiers qui les remj^ybssent, il en est un, rhyfene, qui s'est trouve assod^ soit a Eirkdale, soit k Fouvent, soit pr^s de Canstadt et d'Eichstadt, aux 616phans, aux rhinoceros, k narines cloisonn^es, aux hippopotames, en un mot, aux grands pachydermes des terrains meubles; et comme la mdme esp^ce accompagne k Gailenreuth lets tigres et les grands ours elle fait n6cessairement remonter ces demiers animaux aussi haut qu'elle dans le temps.'' And again at page 305> speaking of the same subject, he says, " II est suffisamment prouv6 que ces divers animaux ont vecus ensem- ble dans les m6mes pays et ont appartenu k la meme 6poque. Ce fait important me paroit avoir 6t6 parfaitement 6tabli par M. Buck- land/' OPINION OF M. CUVIER. 231 With respect to Kirkdale^ he says, page 394, " Le depdt le plus abundant en os d'hy^ne que Ton ait jamais observ6, oi!i leur nombre va pour ainsi dire jusqu'au merveilleux, c'est la caveme de Eirkdale, dans le comt6 d'York, que j'ai d^crite d-dessus d'apres M. Buck- land." And at page 302, ^ En g6n6ral, il paroit qu'avant les demieres d6couyertes, et surtout celle qui vient d'etre faite dans le comt6 d'York^ on ne connoissoit gu^re que celles d'Allemagne, et de Hongrie, qui fiissent riches en ossemens de camassiers. ** A la v6rit6, on pouvoit dkjk croire que le rocher de Fouvent, dont nous avons parl6 dans notre premier volume, et qui montre dans une de ses cayit6s des os dliyenes en m6me temps que d'616- phans, de rhinoceros, et de chevaux, appartenoit k cet ordre de ph6nom^nes, mais, comme on ne p6n6tra point dans la profondeur, on ne put constater ce qui en 6toit. ** n n'en a pas 6t6 de m^me de la caveme de Kirkdale. Visit6e aussit6t apr^s sa d6couverte par plusieurs hommes instruits, et surtout par le savant et ing^nieux g6oliste, M. Buckland, on n'a rien k desirer k son sujet/' M. Cuvier also expresses an opinion which coincides entirely with my own, ^ that the human race had not estabUshed themselves in those countries where the animal remains under consideration have hitherto been found, in the period preceding the grand inundation by which they were destroyed.'* } APPENDIX. 11 H APPENDIX. ON THE EXCAVATION OF VALLEYS BY DILUVIAL DENUDATION. I HAVE reserved for this place, in the form of an Appendix, the foUowing details respectmg two districts which I have abeady quoted in my specification of the proofs of diluvial action in the south of England, because the particulars herein enumerated would have* interrupted the course of my former argument; and also, because they have already been published in the first volume of the New Series of the Geol. Trans. Part I., and, in the fifth volume of the Old Series of the same Transactions, Part II. They relate to the valleys of denudation that intersect the coast of Devon and Dorset, and to the excavation of valleys and dispersion of beds of gravel in the county of Warwick, and along the course of the Cherwell, Evenlode, and Thames, from Warwickshire to London. We have few opportunities of witnessing by direct experiment or observation the force of immense masses of water, in excavating hollows on the earth's surface, and removing to a great distance the fragments which they tear away ; and were it not for the ravages we occasionally see produced by such comparatively trifling causes, as the bursting of a dyke in Holland, or of the barrier of an Alpine H H 2 286 FORCE OF LARGE MASSES OF WATER SET IN MOTION. lake, we could scarcely believe that there are valleys of many miles in breadth, and many hundred feet in depths which owe their origin exclusively to the excavating power of a flood of waters. Our present rivers excavate but little, as they flow through valleys already formed by an overwhelming ocean ; and the de- structive action of the present sea is limited to the partial cutting away of cliflfe by the slow undermining of the waves in storms and at high tides. Yet we know from the effect of a mountain torrent in cutting ravines and drifting gravel ; from the blocks of granite which were lifted to an elevated point on the side of a mountain by the bursting of a small lake in the Val de Bagnes, in Switzerland, a few years ago ; and from the excavation of the Zuyderzee, by the bursting of a dyke in Holland ; that the force of water in rapid motion is competent both to transport such masses of gravel and granite blocks as we have been tracing over the world, and to ex- cavate valleys which though many miles in breadth, and many hun- dred feet in depth, still bear a due proportion to the bulk and power of the agent that produced them. " When we call to mind," says Mr. Sumner, in his inestimable and most judicious work on the Kecords of Creation, VoL II. p. S50, " the destruction which is spread by a sudden alteration in the level of a very inconsiderable body of water, even to the extent of 50 or 100 feet, we cannot easily assign Umits to the effect of a body of waters like the ocean pouring in over the land when its level was destroyed ; we are at a loss to conceive what the power of such a machine might be when once in operation." An agent thus gigantic appears to have operated universally on the surface of our planets at the period of the deluge ; the spaces VALLEYS EXCAVATED BY DILUVIAN WATERS. 237 then laid bare by the sweeping away of the solid materials that had before filled them, are called valleys of denudation ; and the effects we see produced by water in the minor cases I have just mentioned, by presenting us an example within tangible Umits, prepare us to comprehend the mighty and stupendous magnitude of those forces, by which whole strata were swept away, and valleys laid open, and gorges excavated in the more soUd portions of the substance of the earth, bearing the same proportion to the overwhelming ocean by which they were produced, that modern ravines on the sides of mountains bear to the torrents which since the retreat of the deluge have created and continue to enlarge them. When a gorge or valley takes its beginning, and continues its whole extent within the area of strata that are horizontal, or nearly so, and which bear no mark of having been moved from their original place by elevation, depression, or disturbance of any kind ; and when it is also inclosed by hills that afford an exact correspondence of oppo- site parts, its origin must be referred to the removal of the substances that once filled it : and as it is quite impossible that this removal could have been produced in any conceivable duration of years by rivers that now flow through them, (since all the component streams, and conse- quently the rivers themselves, which are made up of their aggregate, owe their existence to the prior existence of the valleys through which they flow,) we must attribute it to some cause more powerful than any at present in action, and the only admissible explanation that suggests itself is, that they were excavated by the denuding force of a transient deluge. That these excavations took place at a period subsequent to that at which the earth was inhabited by the hyaenas, bears, elephants. 238 VALLEYS EXCAVATED SINCE CAVES WERE INHABITED. rhinoceroses, &c. whose remains we find in caves, and diluvial loam and gravel, is evident both from the fact that the outscourings of these valleys form the gravel in which such bones are for the most part embedded ; and from the number of caves (once inhabited as dens) that have been intersected and laid open in the cli£% that flank their sides and narrow gorges. The present entrance of these caves is often a hole in an absolutely vertical precipice, which it is impossible to approach except by ropes or ladders, and which, therefore, could not have been accessible to the animals whose bones we find within, if the caves had originally terminated, as they do at present, in the face of a precipice ; it follows therefore, that the creation of such precipices, and consequently of the valleys in question, was posterior to the time in which the beasts occupied these dens. See an illustration of this hypothesis in the three caves intersected by the gorge of the Esbach, at Plate XVIII : see also Plate XV., XVI., and XIX. Note. ** The effects of water upon the solid strata of the globe have been the subject of much geological debate ; but it b now almost universally admitted, that valleys have been excavated by causes no longer in action,— contrary to the opinion of Dr. Hutton and Mr. Playfair, who maintained that they were formed by the long continued erosion of the streams which actually run through them. This question had been long since placed in a very convincing light by Hutchinson and his disciple Catcott ; who have shown, that the surface at present furrowed by valleys must have been in many cases continuous ; and this, in innumerable instances, where streams do not exist at all, (as every chalk down clearly shows), or where the existing streams are quite inadequate to the effect. Thus, in a series such as is here represented. the portions of the beds, a, b, and c, at present detached from each other, must once have been continuous ; d has only been partially cut through ; and e has been left un- VALLEYS ON THE EAST OF LYME AND OF SIDMOUTH. 2S9 VALLEYS OF DENUDATION, AND DILUVIAL PEBBLES IN DORSET, DEVON, WILTS, AND BERKS. m Some of the best examples I am acquainted with of valleys thus produced exclusively by diluvial denudation occur in those parts of the coasts of Dorset and Devon which lie on the east of Lyme, and Ml the east of Sidmouth ; and the annexed views and map will illustrate, better than any description, the point I am endeavouring fo establish. In passing along this coast (see the Map and Views, Plates XXV. and XXVI.) we cross, nearly at right angles, a con- tinual succession of hills and valleys, the southern extremities of which are abruptly terminated by the sea ; the valleys gradually sloping into it, and the hills being abruptly truncated, and often overhanging the beach or undercliff, with a perpendicular precipice. The main direction of the greater number of these valleys is from north to south ; that is, nearly in the direction of the dip of the strata in which they are excavated : the streams and rivers that flow through them are short and inconsiderable, and incompetent, even when flooded, to move any thing more weighty than mud and sand. The greater number of these valleys, and of the hills that bound touched, merely because the excavation did not cut deep enough. The coast of Dorset and Devon exhibits a case of this kind very beautifully ; and with the greater distinct- ness, because the beds, which are there intersected, by valleys nearly at right angles to the coast, are so different from each other, and so unlike in appearance (chalk, green sand, oolite, lias, and red marl)^ that there is no difficulty in tracing them, and no doubt as to their former connexion* The author's paper on this part of the coast, which he has subjoined in an Appendix, is accompanied by a map and explanatory views, and iDustrates very clearly this important step in his argument^ — Edinburgh Review, No. 77. pp. S27, 9X8. 240 STRATA CORRESPOND ON OPPOSITE SIDES OF VALLEYS. them, are within the limits of the north and north-west escarpment of the green sand formation ; and in their continuation southward they cut down into the oolite, lias, or red marl^ according as this or that formation constitutes the substratum over which the green sand originally extended. There is usually an exact correspondence in the structure of the hiUs inclosing each valley ; so that, whatever stratum is found on one side, the same is discoverable on the other side upon the prolongation of its. plane: whenever there is a want of correspondence in the strata on the opposite sides of a valley, it is referable to a change in the substrata upon which the excavating waters had to exert their force. The section of the hills in this district ttmally presents an insulated cap of chalk, or a bed of angular aad MMBlled chalk-flints, reposing on a broader bed of green sand ; and iUm again resting on a stiU broader base of oolite, lias, or red marl (see Plates XXV. and XXVI.) With the exception of the very local depression of the chalk, and subjacent green sand, and red marl on the west of the Axe, at Seer Cli£^ the position of the strata is regular and very slightly inclined ; nor have any subterraneous disturbances operated to an important degree to affect the form of the valleys. If we examine the valleys that fall into the bay of Charmouth from Surton on the east to Exmouth on the west, viz. that of the Sredy, the Srit, the Char, the Axe, the Sid, and the Otter, we shall find them all to be valleys of diluvian excavation ; their flanks are similarly constructed of parallel and respectively identical beds ; and the commencements of them all originate within the area and on the south side of the escarpment of the green sand. The valley of the Sid, as it is coloured in the annexed map, may STRATA WERE ONCE CONTINUOUS ACROSS THE VALLEYS. 241 from its shortness and simplicity be taken as an example of the rest ; it originates in the green sand, but soon cuts down to the red marl, and continues upon it to the sea ; in both these respects it agrees with the upper branches of the Otter, and with the valleys that fall from the west into that of the Axe. But in those cases where the lias and oolite formations are inter- posed between the red marl and green sand, the base of the vaUey varies with the variation of substratum ; this may be seen by com- paring the opposite sides of the lower valleys of the Otter, the Axe, and the Char, with the variations of their substrata, as expressed in the map. The valley of Lyme is of equal simplicity with that of Sidmouth, and difPers only in that its lower strata are composed of lias instead of red marl : but the valleys of Chideock, Bridport, and Burton, being within the area of the oolite formation, have their lower slopes com- posed of oolite subjacent to the green sand; whilst that of Charmouth is of a mixed nature, having its western branches in green sand re- posing on lias, and in some of its eastern ramifications, intersecting also the oolite. In the same manner the valley of the Axe has lias inter- posed between the green sand and red marl on its east flank, but none at all on its western side, below the town of Axminster. These apparent anomalies form no exception to the general principle, that the variation of the sides of the valleys is always consistent with that which is simply referable to the variation of the substrata, on which the denuding waters had to exert their force. It is moreover such as can be explained on no other theory than that of the strata having at one time been connected continuously, across the now void spaces which constitute the valleys. I I 242 SECTION OF LIAS QUARRIES NEAR AXMINSTER. The following section, taken from a series of lias quarries on the two opposite sides of the valley of the Axe, near Axminster, will show the degree of minuteness to which this correspondence extends*: 1. White lias... Slaty and fissile, is used for flooring ^*- '"• when split into slabs from two to three inches thick S Clay. 2. Burrs Rough blue building stone ... 10 Clay. 3. Cockles Flat and broad blue stone^ contain- ing shells and divided into two beds, each three inches thick, with a parting of day ; is used for build- ing.— Total 10 Clay. 4 Anvils Blue building stone, forming a bed of irregular anvil-shaped blocks . 1 Clay. 5. Graze Burrs. Good blue building stone ... 10 Clay. 6. Fire stone . . . White building stone, used also for forming the arch- work of lime pits : it divides into two beds, each four inches thick, with a parting of day.— Total 1 * The details of these quarries are particolariy well known to me, as they are in the immediate neighbourhood of my native place, Azminster : when a child, I often visited them, and collected specimens of fossil shells, which first excited my attention to the sub- ject of geology. SECTION OF LIAS QUARRIES NEAR AXMINSTER. 243 In. Clay. 7. Half-foot bed Strong blue flagstone, the best for ^*- paving 6 Clay. 8. Foot stone . . . Slue paving and building stone . 10 Clay. 9. Red-size White lias, inclining to grey, splitting into two or -three thin slabs, and used for paving and building « 6 Clay. 10. Under bed... Blue building stone, used for paving, and the best bed of all for steps .0 8 Clay, varying from one to six feet. 1 1 . White rock. . .White lias, rough and rubbly through- out ; —not good for paving or build- ing, but used largely to make lime, which is better than that of the other beds for plastering and in- door work : the thickness of this bed is variable ; its average is . . 80 All the above strata are separated by thin beds of clay, varying from four inches to a foot, and exceeding the latter thickness in one case only, viz. between Nos. 10 and 11: but the presence and relative position of each individual stratum of stone is constant ; and the specific character and uses of each bed are of practical notoriety among the masons through the district round Axminster, in which there are many and distant quarries, to any one of which the above ' I I 2 244 EXTENT OF DENUDATION IN EAST DEVON. section is equally applicable ; e.g. to the quarries of Fox Hills on the south-east, of Waycroft on the norths and of Sisterwood, Batdefbrd, Long Leigh, Small-ridge, Green-down, and Cox-wood, on the north- west of Axminster. There can be little doubt, therefore^ that the component strata of all these quarries were originally connected in one continuous plane across the now void space which forms the valley of the Axe. The fact of excavation ia evident from simple inspection of the manner in which the valleys intersect the coast, on the east of Sid- mouth and the east of Lyme, as represented in the annexed views (Plate XXV.) ; and it requires but little effort, either of the eye or the imagination, to restore and fill up the lost portions of the strata, that form the flanks of the valleys of Salcomb^ Dunscomb, and Brans- comb, on the east of Sidmouth ; or of Charmouth, Seatown, and Brid- port, on the east of Lyme. By prolonging the corresponding ex- tremities of the strata on the opposite flanks, we should entirely fill up the valleys, and only restore them to the state of continuity in which they were originaUy deposited. An examination of the present extent and state of the remaining portions of the chalk formation within the district we are considering, will show to what degree the diluvian waters have probably inter- rupted its original continuity. The insulated mass of chalk, which at Beer Head composes the entire thickness of the cliff, rises gradually westward with a continual diminution and removal of its upper sur- face ; till after becoming successively more and more thin on the cliflfe of Branscomb, Littlecomb, and Dunscomb, it finds in the latter its present extreme western boundary : beyond this boundary, on the top of Salcomb Hill, and of all the highest table-lands and insulated INSULATED FLINTS AND DETACHED MASSES OF CHALK. 245 summits of the interior, from the ridges that encircle the vales of Sidmouth and Honiton, to the highest summits of Blackdown, and even of the distant and insulated ridge of Haldon, on the west of the valleyof £xe^ beds of angular and slightly rolled chalk-flints (which can be identified by the numerous and characteristic organic remains ivhich they contain) are of &equent occurrence ; similar beds are foimd also on the green sand summits that encircle the vaUeys of Char- mouth and Axminster ; large and insulated masses of chalk also occur along the coast, &om Lyme nearly to Axmouth, and in the interior at Widworthy, Membury, White Stanton, and Chard ; and these at distances varying &om 10 to 30 miles firom the present termination of the chalk formation in Dorsetshire, though within the limits of the original escarpment of the green sand. These facts concur to show, that there was a time when the chalk covered all those spaces on which the angular chalk-flints are at this time found ; and that it probably formed a continuous, or nearly continuous, stratum, &om its present termination in Dorsetshire, to Haldon, on the west, of Exeter*. From the correspondence observed by Mr. Wm. Phillips, between * There is also reason to think that the plastic clay formation was nearly coextensive with the chalky for on the central summits of Blackdown there are rounded pebbles of chalk-flinty which resemble those found in the gravel-beds of the plastic clay formation at Blackheath : and on the hills that encircle Sidmouth there are large blocks of a sili- ceous breccia, composed of chalk-flints united by a strong siliceous cement, and difiering from the Hertfordshire pudding-stone only in the circumstance of the imbedded flints being mostly angular, instead of rounded, as in the stone of Hertfordshire : a variation which occurs in similar blocks of the same formation at Portisham, near Abbotsbury, and elsewhere.^ — ^The argument, however, arising from the presence of these blocks and pebbles is imperfect ; as it is possible, though not probable, they may have been drifted to their actual place by the diluvian waters, before the excavation of the valleys. 246 ENGLISH CHANNEL IN PART A VALLEY OF DENUDATION. the strata of Dover and the hills west of Calais *, and by Mr. De la Beche, between the strata of the coast of Dorset and Devon, and those of Normandy -f-, it may be inferred (after making due allowance fat the possible influence of those earlier causes, which in many in- stances have occasioned valleys) that the English Channel is a sub- marine valley, which owes its origin in a great measure to diluvial excavation, the opposite sides having as much correspondence as those of ordinary valleys on the land. According to Bouache, the depth of the Straits of Dover is on an average less than 180 feet; and from thence westward to the chops of the Channel the water gradually deepens to only 420 feet, a depth less thmi that of the majority of inland valleys which terminate in the Bay of Charmouth ; and as valleys usually increase in depth from the sides towards their centre, so also the submarine valley of the Channel is deepest in the * middle, and becomes more shallow towards either shore. It seems probable, that a large portion of the matter dislodged from the valleys of which we have been speaking, by the diluvian waters to which they owe their origin, has been drifted into the princi- pal valley of this district, viz. the bed of the sea ; and being subse- quently carried eastward, by the superior force of the flowing above that of the ebbing tide, and the prevailing storms &om the south- west, has formed that vast bed of pebbles known by the name of the Chesil Bank : the principal ingredients of which are such as on the above hypothesis they might be expected to be ; viz. rolled chalk- flints, and pebbles of chert if ; the softer parts of the materials that * See Geol. Trans, vol. v. pp. 47, &c. f Ibid. voL i. of New Series, p. 89. j: This hypothesis has received a further confirmation from the discoveryi by the Hon. Wm. Strangways in the summer of 1823| of the molar tooth of an elephant} among DILUVIAL GRAVEL AND ANIMALS IN DORSET AND DEVON. 247 filled these valleys, such as chalk, sand, clay, and marl, having been floated o£^ and drifted far into the mid-channel or the ocean, by the violence of the diluvial waters. The quantity of diluvian gravel which remains lodged upon the slopes, and in the lower regions of the valleys that intersect this coast, is very considerable ; but it is not probable that many animal remains will be discovered in it, because the large proportion of clay with which it usually is mixed renders it less fit for roads than the shattered chert strata of the adjacent hills, aM consequently gravel- pits are seldom worked in the diluvium. Enough, however, has been done to identify its animal remains with those of the diluvian gravel of other parts of England, by the discovery of several large tusks of elephant, and teeth of rhinoceros, in the valleys of Lyme and Char- mouth. On the highest parts of Blackdown, and on the insulated summits which surround the Vale of Charmouth, I have found abundantly pebbles of opaque white quartz, which must have been drifted thither from some distant primitive or transition country, and carried to their actual place, before the present valleys were excavated, and the steep escarpments formed, by which these high table-lands are now on every side surrounded. These cases are precisely of the same nature with those of the blocks of granite that lie on the mountains of the Jura, and on the plains of the north of Germany and Bussia, and with that of the quartzose pebbles found on the tops of the hills the pebbles of the Chesil Bank near Abbotsbury : it was rounded to the shape of apeb- ble, and must have been washed up not long since from the diluvium above alluded to, which lies at the bottom of the sea, undisturbed, except by extraordinary storms. Had the tooth been many years exposed to the waves on the Chesil Bank, it must have been totally, destroyed ; and the position of the bank will hardly allow us to suppose it to have been derived from any bed of diluvium on the land side of it. 250 VARIOUS PEBBLES COLLECTED NEAR SHIPSTON. They have also been collected in prodigious numbers along the plains subjacent to the escarpment of the oolitic limestone that crosses Warwickshire,, near Shipston-on-Stour ; particularly on the south of that town, at the base of Long Compton Hill. (See Plate XXVII.) They are here accompanied by pebbles of white quartz, lydian stone, gneiss, porphyry, compact felspar, trap, sand-stone of several kinds, lias, chalk, and chalk-flints. Between Shipston and Moreton in the Marsh, they have been drifted into a kind of bay, formed by the horn-shaped headland of the Campden Hills, which projects like a pier-head some miles be- yond the ordinary line of the great limestone chain of the Cotswold Hills. The mouth of this bay opens directly to the north-east, from which quarter it is probable the current which brought the pebbles in question had its direction ; for on the south-east of Shipston there are pebbles of a hard red species of chalk, which occurs not un&e- quently in the Wolds of Yorkshire and Lincolnshire, but is never met with in the chalk of the south or south-east of England. The nearest possible point, therefore, to which these pebbles of red chalk can be referred, is the neighbourhood of Spilsby, in Lincolnshire, whence a diluvial current flowing from the north-east would find an unobstructed passage across the plains of Leicestershire to the Bay of Shipston, and Moreton in the Marsh. With these pebbles of red chalk are others of hard and compact white chalk, such as accom- panies the red chalk in the two last mentioned counties, and which occurs also at Ridlington, in Rutlandshire. the Lickey Hill, in the 5th vol. of the Geological Transactions, from which this extract relating to the diluvial part of their history is transcribed. PEBBLES DRIFTED FROM SHIPSTON TO OXFORD. 251 The diluvian current thus impelled into the Bay of Shipston, from the north-east, appears to have continued its course onwards beyond the head of this bay, near Moreton in the Marsh, (see Plate XXVII.) bursting in over the lowest point of depression of the great escarpment of the limestone ; and being deflected thence south-east- wards by the elevated ridge of Stow in the Wold, to have gone for- ward along the line of the vale of the Evenlode by Charlbury, till it joined that of the Thames at Ensham, five miles north-west of Oxford. This hypothesis affords the most satisfactory explanation of the origin of the great deposits of granular quartzose pebbles, which not only cover irregularly the lower, regions of the valley of the Even- lode, but are scattered abundantly ove^ the surface of the oolite strata, where they rise to a considerable height, and form table-lands on both sides that valley along its whole extent. It also accounts for the accumulation of beds of similar pebbles on the west and south of Oxford, upon the insulated and almost conical summit of Wy tham Hill, and the ridge of Bagley Wood, by their position exactly op- posite the mouth of the vale of the Evenlode, at its confluence with that of the Thames, at the very point on which the driftings eva- cuated from the former valley would be collected*. Being thus introduced within the escarpment of the ooUte, and having passed along the line of the Evenlode into the country round Oxford, these quartzose pebbles have been forced onwards, and mixed up * Near this same point, pebbles of clear rock crystal occur scattered over the sur- face at Ensham Heath, and are applied to the purposes of jewellery, like the Bagshot Heath diamonds, as they are commonly called, being merely small pebbles of crystallized quartz. K K 2 252 COURSE OF PEBBLES FROM OXFORD TO LONDON. with the gravelly wreck of the neighbouring hills^ in eadi suooessive district along the line of the Thames, from the vale of Oxford down- wards to the gravel-beds of London, their quantity decreasing with the distance from their source ; so that in Hyde-Park, and the Kensington gravel-pits, they are less abundant than at Oxford. I have seen them on the summit of the chalk hills round Henley, Maidenhead, High Wycomb, and Beaconfield. They have been noticed also by Lord Grenville in his park at Dropmore, and in the gravel-pits at Bumham; in all these last-named places the great mass of the gravel is composed of imperfectly rolled flints derived from the neighbouring chalk. They are found also mixed with chalk-flints, and slightly rounded oolitic gravel, in the valley of the Cherwell, and the plains adjacent to it, from its source at Claydon and Cherwelton, to Banbury and Oxford, e. g. at Steeple Aston, Heyford, Rowsham, Kirtlington, and Kidlington. At Abing- don, they occur not only in the gravel-beds of the valley, but are scattered loosely over the plains composed of various strata around that town, as well as on the low hills round Newnham, Dorchester, and Wallingford. Among these pebbles, especially at Abingdon and in Bagley Wood, there are many of porphyritic green-stone and green- stone slate, which cannot have come from any nearer source than Chamwood Forest, in Leicestershire. The occurrence of quartzose pebbles in such high situations as the top of Henley Hill and Cumnor Hill, and again on the highest summits of Witchwood Forest, and generally on the elevated plains that flank the valleys of the Evenlode, the Cherwell, and the Thames, (see Plate XXVH.) goes fietr to prove the recent origin of the valleys PEBBLES ON SUMMITS AS WELL AS IN VALLEYS. 25S throu^ which these rivers now flow ; and compels us to refer their excavation to the denuding agency of the same diluvial waters which imported the pebbles. It seems probable that the first rush of these waters drifted in the pebbles within the great escarpment of the oolite, and strewed them over the then nearly continuous plains ; and that the valleys were subsequently scooped and furrowed out by the retiring action of these same waters ; for it is not easy to imagine any explanation of the fact of the pebbles being heaped together on the tops of the insulated, steep, and nearly conical hill of Wytham, and of the elevated ridge of Bagley Wood near Oxford, or on the highest crest of the oolite ridge of Witchwood Forest, and the chalky summits near Henley, unless we suppose the transport of the pebbles to those summits to have been anterior to the excavation of the valleys that now intersect and surround them. Nor is this hypothesis unsup- ported by the fact, that it is on the elevated plains that flank the vales of the Evenlode and Cherwell, no less than in the lower regions which form their present water-courses, that the quartzose pebbles are scattered in an almost uninterrupted line, marking distinctly the course by which they have been propelled from Warwickshire into the vafley of the Thames. (See map, Plate XXVII.) There is another strong fact tending to prove the excavation of tlie valleys of the Evenlode and Cherwell, and of the Thames (in part) near Oxford, to have been subsequent to the transport of the Warwickshire pebbles, namely, the absence of pebbles of oolite in the beds of gravel just mentioned as crowning the summits of Wytham Hill and Bagley Wood. Hence we may infer that the destruction of the oolite strata, as far as concerns these valleys, was not so much the effect of the advancing deluge as of its retiring waters, 254 VALLEYS EXCAVATED BY SUBSIDING DILUVIAN WATERS. * cutting out deep gullies and furrows in the table-lands^ and sides of the higher ridges, and covering their bottom with gravely composed partly of the wreck of the strata immediately inclosing them, and partly of pebbles, which their first rush had transported fit)m more distant regions ; and thus it will appear that the lower trunks of the valleys of the Thames, Cherwell, and Evenlode, (i. e. those portions of them which may be fairly attributed to the exclusive action of denudation, and which lie below the average level of the table-lands which flank their course,) did not exist at the time of the first ad- vance of the waters^ which brought in the pebbles fit)m Warwickshire, but were excavated by the denuding agency which they exerted during the period of their retreat *. If we examine the geological structure of that large portion of England which lies south-east of the escarpment of the oolite formation, along its whole extent, from the coast of Dorset to that of Yorkshire, we shall find in it no one stratum that has the smallest * The excavations produced by the waters enteruig the low point of the oolite escarpment near M oreton have been so greats (see map, Plate XXVII.) that the head springs of the Evenlode, taking their rise from the lias strata in the vale of Moreton beyond the termination of the oolite, flow south-eastward toward Oxford, instead of falling by the much shorter course of the Stour into the valley of the Severn: and it is of importance to observe, that the Evenlode and Cherwell are the only rivers of all those which flow into the Thames, which have not their head-springs within the escarp- ment of the great oolite. The sources of the Cherwell, and a few of its earliest tribu- tary streams, being similarly circumstanced to those of the Evenlode, owe their exist- ence to similar denudations cut through the oolite strata into the clay beds of the sub- jacent lias, even as far south as the town of Banbury. The lowness of the ooHte escarpment at the lip or gap above Banbury appears still further from its having been selected as the line' by which the Oxford Canal is conducted out into the sandstone plains of Warwickshire. This was probably also the lowest point along the N. W. fron- tier of the oolite formation antecedently to the rise of the diluvian waters ; which, ad- vancing from the north with great velocity, would enter more abundantly, and produce larger deposits of gravel from the central counties along 'this line of lower depression^ than in any other part of the oolitic area. 256 COMPOUND NATURE OF GRAVEL AT OXFORD AND LONDON. Similar varieties of gravel, the one angular, and the other completely rolled (the latter being derived from the adjacent pebble beds of the plastic clay formation), occur in the valley of the Thames near London. These rounded pebbles, like those from Warwickshire, had apparently received their attrition from the long continued action of violently agitated waters, during more early revolutions that have af- fected our planet ; whilst the imperfectly rolled fragments are referable to the diluvian waters, which drifted them only from the neighbour- ing hills to their present place ; and from the angular state of this and similar beds of diluvial gmvel, we may infer that the inundation which produced them was of short duration. On the south-west side of ^the Evenlode^ the valleys that intersect the Cotswold Hills in Gloucestershire are the effect of deep denuda- tions produced on the oolite limestone, by a volume of waters rushing downwards over strata composed of uniform and moderately yielding materials. Any irregular projections that might have existed on the original surface would cause these waters to descend with accelerated velocity over the intermediate depressions, and to excavate that series of sweeping combs and valleys that wind with the regular flexures of a meandrous river, and present masses of land alternately advancing and retiring with all the uniformity of the salient and re-entering angles that mark the course of running water. Striking examples of such valleys extending upwards far above the highest springs that take their rise in them, and forming vast diluvian furrows along the back of the inclined planes of the great oolite formation, may be seen in passing along the line of the Roman Fossway, from Bath to Stow in the Wold : this line, being parallel to COMBS AND DILUVIAL VALLEYS ON THE COTSWOLD HILLS. 257 that of the great escarpment of the Cotswold Hills, crosses nearly at right angles all the valleys that descend from them towards the south-east, into the main trunks of the Thames or Avon ; and in no part of it are the features of diluvian action more strongly displayed than between North Leach and Stow in the Wold. It is obvious that such valleys cannot possibly be attributed to the action of springs or rivers that now flow through them, since they often take their origin many miles above even the highest springs : their magnitude and depth bespeak the agency of a mass of waters in- finitely more powerful than even the most violent water-spouts of modem times could nroduce : their form also difiers entirely from the deep and precipitous ravines which are excavated by mountain torrents ; and if it should be contended that the bursting of a series of water-spouts would be competent to set in action such masses of water as might have been sufficient for this effect ; imless we can suppose them to have fallen universally and contemporaneously, not only over the district under consideration, but over the whole earth, they will afford no solution of the phenomena of these and similar contemporaneous systems of valleys, which occur on strata that are similarly circumstanced in every part of the known world. The chalk downs of England; and the upper portions of the chalky and oolitic plains of France, are universally covered with a series of dry valleys exactly similar to those that occur on the back of the inclined planes of oolite in the Cotswold Hills ; and the uniform texture and moderate degree of inclination which usually attend both these formations will explain the regularity of the diluvian valleys that have been excavated on their surface. L L 258 DENUDATION NOT THE ONLY CAUSE OF VALLEYS. In strata of higher antiquity, that have been more shattered and disturbed by violent convulsions (i. e. in the coal formation, and also in transition and primitive rocks), irregularities in the texture and dis- position of the strata on which the diluvian waters had to exert their force have caused the features of the valleys that traverse them to be much less exclusively derivative from the simple action of a retiring flood of waters ; and indeed have rendered the form, in- clination, hardness, and relative position of the masses on which these waters had to operate, essential elements of any accurate calculations as to the quantity of effect that must be referred to them. Though traces of diluvial action are most unequivocally visible over the surface of the whole earth, we must not attribute the origin of all valleys exclusively to that action ; in such cases as we have been describing, the simple force of water, acting in mass on the surface of gently inclined and regular strata of chalk and oolite, is sufficient for the effects produced ; but in other cases, more espe- cially in mountain districts, (where the greatest disturbances appear generally to have taken place,) the original form in which the strata were deposited, the subsequent convulsions to which they have been exposed, and the fractures, elevations, and subsidences which have affected them, have contributed to produce valleys of various kinds on the surface of the earth, before it was submitted to that last catastrophe of an universal deluge which has finally modified them all. •/ M.^. li \\: M.i. ,, Fio.Z. ^fc.'^V-i ■^ -; - . , .rfr?'' '^^^ '■ S»*rf«uw .vMm (^ //:/ _ f.lrl*,a>lJ T,vl/i li-ii.-ai>l« Jty/ .1 260 EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. Pl.ATK III. 1. Portion of the left upper jaw of the modern hyaena from the Cape. 2. Inside view of No. 1. 3. Analogous portion of the left upper jaw of the fossil hyaena fi'om Kirkdale. 4. Inside view of No, 3, with the tooth of a water-rat adhering by stalagmite to a broken portion of the palate. 5. Fragment from Kirkdale, showing the inside of the palate, and five incisor teeth of the upper jaw, much worn down. Plate IV. 1 . Outside view of the right lower jaw of the modern Cape hya?na. 2. Analogous portion of lower jaw of the Kirkdale hyaena, being nearly one-third larger. 3. Inside view of No, 2 . Plate V. !• Fragment of the right lower jaw of an hyaena, showing the convex surface of the jaw and its teeth, that lay uppermost in the den, to be deeply worn by friction, and to have received a polish. The enamel and one-third of the substance of the teeth and bone on this side have been worn away. 2. Concave surface of No. 1, having no marks of friction, polish, or decay : the enamel on this side of the teeth is perfect and unchanged. 3. Fragment of the right lower jaw of a young hyaena, having the convex surfoce only polished as in No. 1 ; and showing the cavities in which the second set of teeth were rising to succeed the first set : one of these, the j)osterior molar tooth, still remains in its place. F/.3. •- . n.4. c .-■ 262 EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 11. Small molar tooth of fox. 12. Great molar tooth of the right lower jaw of fox ; outside view- IS. Inside view of No. 12. 14. Fenultima of upper jaw% right side of fox. ^* /Molar teeth of the first set of a young hysena. J I Molar teeth, &e. 17.) 18. Outside view of No. 17. 19. Canine tooth of a young hyiuna. 20. 21. Posterior molar tooth of the lower jaw of a young hyaena, much worn. 22, 23, 24, 25. Outside and inside views of two molar teeth of the upper jaw of a young hyaena : they are all extremely thin, and have deep furrows worn on them. They may be seen in the jaw at Plate XIII. No. 3, 4. 26, 27. Posterior molar tooth of the upper jaw of a young hyaena. 28, 29. Posterior tooth and penultima of a weasel, left upper jaw (twice the natural size). 30, 31. Side and front views of the same tooth, probably a diseased molar tooth of an hya?na. Plate VII. 1. Small molar tooth of a very young elephant, being the average size of those found in the den. 2. Fragment of a still younger elepliant's tooth, of the natural size. 3. ^lolar tooth of upper jaw of rhinoceros. 4. Inside view of molar tooth of lower jaw of rhinoceros. 5. Crown of No. 4, as seen from above. 6. Outside view of No. 4. 7. Molar tooth of the upper jaw of a horse. A'. J. ■ * I I y ' - 4 EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 263 8. "^Two views of a molar tooth of hippopotamus not at all worn 9. ) down. 10. Molar tooth of hippopotamus, having the summits of the crown worn down. Plate VIII. 1. Posterior molar tooth of the lower jaw of an ox. 2. Crown of No. 1. 3. Posterior molar tooth of the right lower jaw of a species of deer. 4. Molar tooth of the upper jaw of an ox. 5. Molar tooth of the lower jaw of a calf. 6. Side view of No. 5. 7. Molar tooth of the upper jaw of an ox. 8. Outside view of No. 7. 9. Molar tooth of the upper jaw of a very large species of deer, equalling in size the largest elk, but differing in form. 10. Outside view of No. 9. 11. Molar tooth of the upper jaw of a second species of deer, equalling in size the largest red deer. 12. Outside view of No. 11. ] 3. ) Inside and outside views of a rising molar tooth of a third 14.) species of deer, of the size of a large fallow deer. Plate IX. 1. Outside view of a molar tooth of the lower jaw of a large species of deer. 2. Inside view of No. 1. 3. Base of the horn of a large deer, measuring nine inches and three-quarters in circumference, which corresponds exactly in size 264 EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. with that of a very large English red deer in the Anatomy School at Oxford. 4. Base of a horn similai* to No. 1, having two antlers near its lower extremity, and measuring seven inches and three-quarters in circumference. 5. Base of a deer's horn, having the lowest antler at the distance of three inches and a half from the lower extremity. Pl,ate X. , 1 . Coronary bone of a horse. 2. First phalangal bone of a very large ox ; seen laterally. 3. Under side of No. 2. 4. 5. Astragalus of a large ox : two different sides of the same bone. 6. AJbum grdBcum, showing a small sphere adhering to the larger one, and an indentation of the sides of both by pressure from a third sphere. 7- Astragalus of hyana. . 8. Side view of No. 7. 9. Aistragalus of fox. 10. Side view of No. 9. 11. Astragalus of water-rat. 12. Os calcis of water-rat. 13. Os calcis of fox. 14. Os calcis of rabbit. 15. l6. Internal metatarsal bone of rabbit, having lost the epiphysis. 17, 18. Metatarsal bone of rabbit, retaining the epiphysis at the lower extremity. "i^ ^ fi EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 265 Plate XI. The specimens from 1 to 29, inclusive, are all from Kirkdale. 1 . Lower jaw of a water-rat. 2. Lower incisor tooth of No. 1 . 3. Upper incisor of water-rat. 4. Anterior molar tooth of lower jaw of water-rat. 5. No. 4, magnified. 6. Crown of No. 4, magnified. 7. Jaw of a mouse. 8 and 9. Teeth of No. 7, magnified four times. 10. Anterior molar tooth of the upper jaw of a rabbit. 1 1 . Os innominatum of a young water-rat. 12. Tibia of a water-rat. 18. Lower epiphysis of femur of water-rat, twice magnified. 14. Femur of water-rat, twice magnified. 15. Ulna of water-rat. 16. Tail vertebra of water-rat. 17. Anterior extremity of No. 16. 18. Posterior extremity of No. 16. 19. Bight ulna of a raven ; anterior extremity. 20. Outside view of No. 19, showing the points of attachment of the quill feathers. 21. Right ulna of a raven, showing the other extremity of No. 19. 22. 28. Other views of No. 20, showing the cavity to be nearly filled with stalagmite. 24. Bight ulna of a lark, showing the attachments of the quill feathers. 25. Inside view of No. 24. 26. Left ulna of a very large species of pigeon. MM g^' 266 EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 27. Inside view of No. 26. 28. Right coracoid process of the scapula of a small species of duck or widgeon. 29. Inside view of No. 28. 80. Tusk of the upper jaw of a large hog, polished obliquely near its apex, and having a molar tooth of hog adhering to it, near its base, by an ochreous crust, from Hutton cavern, in Mendip. 31. View of the opposite side of No. SO. 82. Large molar tooth of hog in a fragment of the lower jaw, slightly incrusted with oclire, from Hutton. 38. Small molar tooth of hog, from Hutton. Nos. SO, 31, 82, 33 are in Mr. Catcott's collection at Bristol. Plate XII. Lower jaw nearly entire of a very old hyaena, found with the bones of elephant, rhinoceros, horse, ox, &c. in diluvium, at Lawford, near Rugby, in Warwickshire. The coronary part of all the teeth is nearly worn off, and on the worn surface of the two hindmost there are deep furrows; all the surfaces are highly poUshed, and even have a brilliant lustre ; seven teeth only remain, the animal having worn out nine from its lower jaw alone, viz. six incisors, the left canine or tusk, and two anterior molars. Traces of the root of the right anterior molar are still visible in their proper place : the sockets of all the other lost teeth have been either removed by absorption, or filled up with bone. It should be observed, that this specimen, and the humerus and ulna (Plate XIII. 1, 2.), are not in the least degree mangled or broken like those from the den at Kirkdale, being derived probably from one of the last hyaenas that were drowned by the diluvian waters, together with the other animals whose bones are found with them equally perfect, and free from such marks of violence as occur on all the bones of whatever kind discovered at Eirkdale. FJ.r/. EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 267 Plate XIII. 1. Badius of a very old hysena, found at Lawford, in the diluvium, with the jaw, in Plate XII, and probably from the same individual. 2. Ulna fitting No. 1, and found together with it. Both these bones, like the jaw, have no marks of gnawing "or any violence in them, and appear to be from the same individual Nos. 1 and 2 are reduced one-tenth. S. Fragment of the right up})er jaw of a young hysna, showing the second set of teeth advancing beneath the first. This interesting specimen belongs to Archdeacon Wrangham, on whose property at Kirkdale the cavern stands. 4. Outside view of No. 3 ; compare with this, the teeth 22, 28, 24, 25, at Plate VI. 5. Inside xdew of the great molar tooth of the right lower jaw of a wolf found at Kirkdale, by Mr. Salmond. 6. Outside view of No. 5. 7. Small molar tooth of an hippopotamus from Kirkdale. 8. Part of the lower jaw of a hare or very large rabbit, from Kirkdale. Nos. 7 and 8 are from drawings, by Miss Duncombe. 9. Humerus of a bird, apparently a goose, found at Lawford ; with Nos. 1 and 2, and with No. 1, Plate XII. 10. Outside view of No. 9. This bone is the only example I know of the remains of birds being noticed in the diluvium of Eng- land, excepting those at Kirkdale. 1 1 . Humerus of a bird, apparently a snipe, from Kirkdale. I had not compared this bone with any recent skeletons, at the time when page 15 of the first edition was printed. 12. Inside view of No. 11. M M 2 268 EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. Plate XIV. Vertical section of the great cave of Scharzfeldi on the west border of the Hartz ; drawn from a sketch made on the spot by Professor Buckland, A. D. 1822. A. Fissure in the surface of the land by which we descend into the great chamber B. fi. Portion of the main chamber, which extends into the hill to at least three times the length hevfi represented ; its roof is hung with clusters of stalactite. C. Crust of stalagmite, restored to perhaps a greater degree than that in which it probably existed on the floor, before it had been dis- turbed in search of bones. D. Bed of brown earth or diluvial loam, spread over the actual floor of the cave, and interspersed with angular fragments and rounded pebbles of limestone, and a few teeth and bones. E. Artificial excavation in this brown earth, down to the lime- stone of the actual floor. F. Artificial excavation through brown earth into the under- vault G. G. Under- vault filled completely with diluvium similar to D, but much more abundantly loaded with bones. H. Artificial vault excavated in G, in search of bones, which are seen forming part of its roof and sides, as well as of its floor. I. Under-vault, filled with the same diluvium and bones as G, and not yet disturbed. K. Passage, communicating from G to I, and also filled in the same manner. • * 270 EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. M. Supposed continuation of the cave A. to the antediluvian surface N. N. Supposed surface of limestone as it existed before the ex- cavation of the valley L, o. o. Large block of limestone laid irregidarly in the chamber B.* and apparently fallen from the roof. Plate XVI. Section of the cave of Biel's Hbhle, nearly opposite that of Bauman s Hohle, and on the right side of the gorge of the Bode. A. Small hole of entrance in the side of the cliff, by which we descend into the suite of irregular chambers that compose this cave. B. Bottom of numerous hollows or basins that occur along the course of the cave, and are uniformly covered with a deep bed of mud and sand, over which is spread a crust of stalagmite. C. Tubular cavities and fissures that ascend from various parts of the cave towards the surface, and by which the mud and sand were probably drifted in. D. Irregular rocky masses that form large pinnacles between the basins B., and have cavities on their summits filled also with a deep sediment of mud and sand, the surface of which is sealed over with a crust of stalagmite, H. E. Gorge or narrow valley of the Bode river, flanked on both sides by precipitous crags of transition limestone. F. Supposed continuation of the mouth A. to the surface, as it probably existed before the excavation of the valley. G. Supposed surface of the limestone before the formation of the subjacent valley. H. Crust of stalagmite covering the diluvial mud and sand both in the hollows B., and on the pinnacles D. EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 271 Plate XVIL Vertical section of the cave of Gailenreuth, in Franconia, from sketches made by Professor Buckland in 1816 and 1822. A. Entrance passage, varying from six to ten feet in height, terminating externally in a steep cli£^ and internally expanding itself into the large chamber B. B. Large chamber, having much stalactite on its roof, and still more stalagmite on its floor. In the centre is a pillar of these sub- stances, uniting the roof and floor. C. Crust of stalagmite, still perfect over great part of the floor of B., but much destroyed on that of the lower chamber F. D. Bed of diluvial loam, mixed with pebbles, angular fragments of limestone, bones and teeth : the bones are not so abundant as in the lower masses G. I. £. Hole excavated in the mass D. for the purpose of extracting bones : fragments of these bones lie loosely scattered on the surface of the crust C, and mixed with bones of modern animals, with ashes also and charcoal from fires made to illuminate the cave, and with com- mon soil brought in from the external surface. F. Second chamber, separated from B. by a perpendicular pre- cipice, and having probably other less steep communications with it. The stalagmite of the floor C. is represented as restored to the state in which it probably existed before it had been disturbed by digging. G. Enormous mass of bones lying in loose earth in a deep natural cavern, which descends laterally from the chamber F. H. Upper and empty part of the cavern which contains the bones G. I. Mass of bones, 25 feet deep, mixed with pebbles and loam, and cemented by stalagmite into a strong osseous breccia. 272 EXPLANATION OF THE, PLATES. K. Well sunk 25 feet deep in I., for the purpose of extracting bones. K. K. Cavities excavated at the bottom of K., but not reaching through the breccia to the natural limestone rock. L. Oven-shaped cavity dug in the side of I. in search of bones and skulls. M. Low passage connecting the chamber F. with the smaller chamber N. N. Small innermost chamber, in the floor of which is sunk the well K. This must originally have been the roof of a deep cave, which has been filled up by the mass I. I. Plate XVIII. View of the narrow valley or gorge of the Esbach river, which falls into the Weissent a little above Muggendorf. A. Ruins of the castle of Rabenstein, on the edge of a cliff about 100 feet high, on the right bank of the Esbach. fi. Chapel of Klaustein, standing immediately over the cave C, which I have called the cave of Rabenstein : it also bears the name of Klaustein. C Mouth of the cavern, leading to a large chamber, which has many side vaults and lateral communications, some of which pro- bably pass upwards to the surface. This cave contains few bones? but much mud and stalagmite. D. Channel of the Esbach, a very small river which descends by this gorge to join the Weissent. The gorge in its narrowest part is not 50 yards broad. E. Mouth of the cave of KUhloch, in the lowest part of the cliff, on the left flank of the gorge opposite the castle of Rabenstein. This 1 • .^ ^' * €. I ^ jH'"-" " ""■■■■■ «£.,-/-.-*■>. m^^ ''p*-!**^ >(#•■ Scfdr.Clriie Incti to aMile I EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 273 mouth must have been included in solid rock till the valley had been cut down nearly to its present depth. F. Entrance to the cavern by a lofty vault leading to the cave G. The roof and floor of this vault are inclined downwards at a con- siderable angle. G. Section of the interior of the great cave, closed on every side with solid rock except at F., and having its floor H. buried under a deep bed of black animal earth and bones. The section is repre- sented by dotted lines marked on the surface of the diff. H. Actual floor of the cave, beneath the black earth and bones. I. Mouth of the cave of Schneiderloch, in the difls a little below Kuhloch, and also containing bones. Plate XIX. Map of the district round Muggendorf, in Franconia, showing the manner in which the country \a intersected by deep valleys of de- nudation, and the present mouths of the caves exposed in the diffii that flank these valleys, though not exclusively confined to them. This map is copied from that in Gk)ldfu8s's Pocket-book on the Environs of Muggendorf. The Vignette, giving a view of the mouth of the cave of Gkulen- reuth, with a fissure close adjacent to it, is copied from an engraving in Esper's account of the caves of this district. Plate XX. Vertical section of the cave discovered in the Dream lead mine at Callow, near Wirksworth, Derbyshire^ in December, 1822. A. Shaft sunk perpendicularly downwards 60 feet, through a solid vein oontainiDg lead. B . Supposed continuation of the lead vein below the floor of the cave. N N 274 EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. C. Cave in the state it was when visited hy the author in January, 18239 excepting that a large number of the rhinoceros bones had been extracted. D. Fissure laid open by the subsiding of the materials that had filled it, into the cave C. ; the face of this fissure, under the plumb- line, is rubbed and scratched as if by descending masses of stone. E. Subsided mass of loose stones and argillaceous lo&m that had fiUed the cave to its roof, and the fissure to its sur&ce, before the cave was penetrated, and its contents in part extracted by the shaft A. F. Bones of ox and deer, and horns of deer found near those of the rhinoceros. G. Skeleton of rhinoceros restored to the state in which it pro- bably lay before its matrix had been disturbed by subsiding towards the shaft. H. Solid limestone of Derbyshire, containing the now open fissure D. and the shaft A., and intersected by numerous lead veins. I. Surface of the fissure, which was entirely level, and overgrown with grass, till its contents b^an to subside into the cave C. Plats XXI. Fio. 1. Vertical section of the cave of Goat Hole at Paviland, in the sea difl^ 15 miles west of Swansea, in Glamorganshire. A. Mouth of the cave, at the base of a nearly vertical cUtE^ fiudng the sea, and accessible only at low water, except by dangerous climbing. fi. Inner extremity of the cave, where it becomes so small, thata dog only can go further, and apparently ending at a short distance within B. C. Body of the cave. Its length from A. to B. is about 60 feet, the EXPLANATION OP THE PLATES. 276 breadth from C. to D. (in the plan, fig. 2,) is about 20, the height of the cave from 25 to 30 feet D. (In the section) irregular chimney-like aperture, ascending from the roof of the cave, and terminating in the nearly perpendicular cliff at K. ; it is too small for the entire carcase of an elephant to have passed down through it. E. Bottom of the cave, to which the sea water never reaches; this part is covered over with a loose mass of argillaceous loam and frag- ments of limestone, of diluvial origin, about six feet deep, which has been much disturbed by ancient diggings, and through which are dis- persed the bones and teeth. The elephant's head, and human ske- leton, are marked in the spot in which they were actually found. F. Mass of the same materials as £., but less disturbed, and over- hanging E. with a small cliff, five feet high, in which were found two elephant's teeth. This mass, though less disturbed than E., has been dug over before, and extends into the small hole within B. ; it contains dispersed through it, particularly near B.,recent sea shells and pebbles : at this place also it is firmly united by stalagmite, which rarely occurs in any other part of the cave. G. Loose sea pebbles, strewed in small quantity over the floor of the cave near its mouth, and washed up only by the waves of the highest storms. H. Rock basins, three feet deep, produced by friction of the large pebbles, which still lie in them. I. Naked limestone of the floor of the cave, forming the line within which the waves appear never to enter, and separating the sea pebbles without, from the diluvial loam and angular fragments that form the loose breccia within it. E. Upper termination of the chimney-shaped aperture in the face of the naked cliff. N N 2 276 EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. L. Ledges and hollows in the aperture K, on each of which is lodged about a foot of loose fine earth, that seems to be accumulated from dust drifted by the wind, and is full of minute land shells, and the bones of small animals, apparently brought hither by hawks and sea gulls, e. g. moles, water-rats, field-mice, small birds, and fish. Plate XXII. 1. Lower portion of the horn of a small deer, apparently a cast horn separated by necrosis ; found in the Goat's Hole Cave at Pavi- land. 2. Upper extremity of another horn found with No. 1, apparently of the same species ; it is very flat and thin. S. Lower extremity of a horn, still adhering to the skull, found with the rhinoceros in the cave near Wirksworth, 1822. Near it were several cylindrical portions of the shaft of similar horns, nearly of the same diameter as this, having their surface very smooth. 4. Portion of a flat and palmated horn found with No. 3. The scale of 1, 2, 3, and 4, is half the natural size. 5. Head of an hippopotamus, copied from p. 185 of Lee's History of Lancashire (fol. Oxon. 1700). The only account given of it is that it was dug up under a moss in Lancashire. 6. Outside view of the right tusk of the upper jaw of an animal of the tiger kind, found by Mr. Cottle, of Bristol, A. D. 1822, with the bones already described, in the cave at Oreston, near Plymouth. 7. Inside view of No. 6. Plate XXIII. 1. Besiduary part of the lower extremity of the tibia of an ox, which I saw given entire to a Cape hyasna in Mr. Wombwell's tra- velling collection at Oxford, in December, 1822 : marks of the teeth are • * RBCBWTAND AMCIBNT MA.U.KB 0» TB,X 15.^*5 »- /Aoiirylaitfif. ^ „t <■! /•/lis- ^^ ZiUfr Cami ff^. "^^YeS^ef.'HAiMnM. fi.ie. r EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 279 Fig. 2, Sectional view of the coast of Devonshire, from Sidmouth to Beer-head. The first comb or dry valley, on the east of Sidmouth, is abruptly truncated, like those represented in fig. 1 ; the others terminate by a gradual slope towards the sea. The line of junction of the green-sand with the red marl is marked by the cessation of in- closures and of fertile soil, exactly at the point where the green-sand begins. The table-lands, that form the summits of these green-sand hills, are for the most part barren heaths, except where they are covered with diluvian gravel, or by a bed of unrolled chalk flints. This observation applies also to the green-sand summits in fig. 1, and to the table-lands composed of the same stratum, which stretch in- land from the coast to the flat summits of the Black Down Hills, in which this formation attains its highest elevation, overhangmg with its escarpment the vale of Taunton. (See map at Plate XXVI.) Plate XXVI. Map of the valleys which intersect the coast of Dorset and Devon. — The north-west angle, not being mentioned in the paper, is not coloured. Plate XXVII. Map showing the manner in which the lickey sand-stone pebbles have been drifted from Warwickshire, through two low points in tjbe escarpment of the oolite limestone at Moreton in Marsh, and on the north of Banbury ; and been spread over the country along the vaUeys of the Evenlode, the CherweU, and the Thames, and also on the north of Buckingham. INDEX. A. Abingdon^ pebbles of porphyry in gravely 198. — — bones of elephants and other animals in gravel at, 175. ■ qnartzose pebbles in the valley of, and on the hills adjacent, 252. Abbotsbnry, rolled tooth of elephant in Chesil Bank, at 247. Abscess, marks of, ^Uscovered on antedilavian wolfs bone by Mr. Clift, 74. Abury^ Dmidical temple built of grey wethers, 248. Accidents, many most concur to the discovery of bones in caverns, 97* Actual causes, their effects on lake Huron, 216. ■ began at the period usually as- HMMi signed, 228. ■■ " ■ cannot have produced diluvial phe- nomena, 227. Adelsberg, cave in Carniola, containing bears* bones, 161. Adipocere, in human foot at Paviiand, 88. iElian mentions hyaenas' enmity to dogs, 23. Africa^ proofs of diluvial action in, 220. Agates, obtained from diluvium, in Hindoostan, ibid. Aikin, Mr. his account of gravel at Litchfield^ 195. Album grsecum, calcareous excrement of hyaenas in cave at Kirkdale, 20. — — — — shows hyaenas to have eaten bones, 37. Allan, Mr. his account of osseous breccia at ^Hce, 151, 152. Alluvium of two distinct eras, 185. ■ term applied too vaguely, 190. ■ ■ recent, Mr. Bald's description of it, ^ 186. ancient, Mr. Bald*s description of it, ibid. Alps have been under water, 221. -— — effects of diluvial action in them enormous, 212. Alpine limestone in Franconia, 124. Alternation, none of stalagmite with beds of loam and pebbles in the caves, 110. none of mud and stalagmite at Biels* H5hle, in the Hartz, 123. Althorp, chalk flints in gravel near, 197. America, proofs of diluvial action in, 215. '■■ ' was inundated at the same time with Europe and Asia, 218. North, pebbles of lead in stream works. 177. ■■■' ■ South, proofs of diluvial action in it, 2 1 8. Analogy of diluvial phenomena in all countries, 227. Angular fragments, more abundant in fissures than in caves, 151. ■ ■ in Mediterranean breccia. 150. in caves, are of two eras. 143. flints, on summits, in Devon and Dorset, 245. o o 282 INDEX. Animal matter in cave of Kuhlock^ 138. ■ remains in diluvium of Dorset^ 247. Animals similar in Yorkshire and Italy> 182. Anomalies at Kiihloch^ bow reconciled^ 140. Anspach> Margrave of, his account of caves^ 146. Antibes^ osseous breccia^ 148. Antrim^ valleys excavated by denudation, 207. Arc, Valley of, at Mount Cenis, gravel of two eras, 189. Arezzo, at upper end of Val d'Amo, 181. Aristotle, mentions hyaenas robbing graves, 23. Amheim, diluvium on bank of Rhine at, 189. Arno, Valley of, bones of elephants, &c. 181, 182. Ashdown Park, valley full of grey wethers, 248. Ashes, above stalagmitic crust at Gidlenreuth, 135. Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, remains of elephants in it, 175. ■ contains a complete collection of the remains alluded to in this work, 116. Asia, proofs of diluvial action in, 220. — central, the place to look for human bones, 170. Avalanches in the Hymalaya, bones brought down by them, 223. Axbridge, cave near it with foxes* bones, 166. Axe Valley, simply of diluvial origin, 241. Axminster, section of lias quarries near it, 242. B. Bagley Wood, pebbles on its highest ridge, 251. Bagnes, Valley of, effect of a lake bursting in it, 236. Bald, Mr. his account of two kinds of alluvium, 185. — — his account of elephants in Scotland^ 179. Bamberg, district of caves, 124. Banca, tin in diluvium in, 220. Banbury, quartzose pebbles, 252. Banner Down, dyke of stones filling a fissure^ 69. Bareuth, district of caves, 124. Barfs, ridges of diluvium in Holdemess, 209. Barnard Castle, blocks of granite from Shap, 194. Barrow, Mr. announces third discovery at Ply- mouth, 68. Basel, parallel terraces on sides of the Rhine near, 217. Bat, bones in cave at Kbstritz, 1 68. Balleye, elephant's remains in a lead mine at, A.D. 1663, 61. Bauman's Hohle described, 117. Bavaria, bones in gravel at Eichstadt in, 26. Beaconsfield, pebbles from Warwickshire, on the hills near, 252. Bear, remains common to caves and gravel beds, 146. — in cave at Kirkdale, 17. 35. bones in osseous breccia of Pisa, 150. — — lived and died in the caves, 103. Bears, remains of at least 2500, in cave of Kuh- loch, 139. Beaver, fossil, in Val d'Amo, 182. Bedford, gravel in vale of, 197. Bedfordshire) its gravel, 196. Beer Head, entirely composed of chalk, 244. Behrens, account of caves in his Hercynia Curiosa, 104. Boiling, Mr. his account and collection of bones near Brunswick, 181. Berger, Mr. his discovery of bones near Bruns- wick, 181. Birmingham, pebbles in red stand-stone near, 249. Bigsby, Dr. his account of diluvial action near Lake Huron, 215. Birds, list of bones found at Kirkdale, 15. bones at Kirkdale, chiefly wing bones, 34. in the diluvium of England, 27. bones, in Paviland, and Gibraltar, 93. 155. Biel's Hohle, origin of name, and description of it> 12U Black earth, rare in cave of Gailenreuth, 136. — — — — — none at Kirkdale^ 12. INDEX. 283 Black earthy abandance of it at Kuhloch, 13r> 138; ■■ ■ at Scharzfeld, from decayed bones, 117. Blackdown^ rounded quartz pebbles on its sum- mitsj 247. ■ summits have chalk flints on themy 245. it^ ibid. Blade bone in cave at Paviland> 87. Blocks on the Jura^ analogous to pebbles on the top of the rock of Gibraltar^ 1 57. Blorenge Mountain^ effect of torrents from it^ 188. Bloxam, A. Esq. discovered hysena at Rngby^ 26. Blumenbach> his description of bones near Os« terode^ 107. number of elephants found in Ger- many, within his knowledge^ 180. ■ his opinion of the origin of bones in caves, 103. Bochart^ his account of hyaenas mentioned in Scripture, and classic fvriters» 23. Bog report, Irish, quoted, 209. Bode river, near cave of Bauman's Hohle, 1 18. Bombay, agates and onyx stones in diluvium, 220. Bones, number of and broken state at Kirkdale, 12. fracture of them, the effect of violence, 17. cover the bottom of cave at Kirkdale, 1j6. bard parts only have escaped fracture, ibid. marks of teeth on them, ibid. splinters and comminuted fragments, of, ibid. ■— ^ cemented to a breccia, ibid. in different states of decay, and cause of ditto, 13. — . retain much of their gelatine, ibid. preserved from decay by mud and stalag- mite, ibid. — — of recent animals in chimney of the cave at Paviland, 93. Bones of modern animals mixed with antediluvian at Kostritz, 168. recent, in same cave with antediluvian. 100. mixed with ancient, at Zahnloch^ 131. pebbles of plastic clay formation on 101. general state of them in German caves, occur in caves but partially, 143. recent, in cave of Gailenreuth, 135. ■ open cavern near Paviland, 96. — postdiluvian, in open fissure at Duncombe Park, 55. « — their position in caves of Germany, 1 10. — broken, but not rolled, in Mediterranean breccia, 150. — invested with stalagmite, 16. — in caves at Kostritz, near Leipsig, 1 67. not mineralised, 9. soft, when taken from the diluvium, 175. stamped and pounded by pebbles at Bau- man's H5hle, 119. from Westphalia, in the Museum at Bonn -, 112. Bottle, fragment of, in breccia at Gibraltar, 156. Bouache, his account of depth of English Channel, 246. Boulders abound in north-west of England, 199. - near Lake Erie and Lake Huron, 216. of granite in counties of Wicklow and Carlow, 208. ■■ abound in South Wales, 206. — — ~ on surface of hills in Stirlingshire, 202. Bowles, Mr. his account of bones in Spain, 160. Box near Bath, elephant's remains, 174. Brackley, diluvial quartz pebbles, 1 97. Bransburton, ridge of gravel locally called barf^ 209. Braunston, its gravel, 196. Breccia^ definition of, 8. ■■ osseous, from Kirkdale, 49. ■ in caves. 111. o o 2 284 INDEX. Breccia^ siliceous^ near Sidmouth^ 245. — — in cave of Gailenrenth^ 135. " of bones in cave of Baaman*8 Hohle, 120. — — — - postdiluvian at Gibraltar^ 156. — — >- at Gibraltar coeval with that of English and German caye8> ibid. ' of fissures coeval with that of caves, 153. Bridgnorth, granite blocks on the east of it, 199. — — pebbles in new red sandstone, 249. Bridlington, elephant's remains at, 173. ■ ■'■ ' caves of diluvium high on chalk cliffs at, and near, 192. Bridport, character of its valley, 241. Brington, Great, gravel pits contain chalk flints, 197. Brongniart, M. his account of the action of water, 188.211. Brooks, Mr. hb collection in osteology, 35. Brown, Mr. his account of hysena*s habits, 22. I says hyaenas eat one another, 28. '■■ his account of hyaenas dragging dead camels, 22. Bmckmann, his account of caves in the Carpa- thians, 100. Brunswick, heap of remains found near it in diluvium at Thiede, 181. Buckingham, gravel in vale. of, 197. Buckinghamshire, its gravel, 196. Buffon, his account of valleys in France, 21 1. Bumham, •pebbles from Warwickshire in gravel at, 252. Burringdon cave, in Mendip, with human remains, 164. Burton, near Bridport, elephant's remains, 174. ■ character of its valley, 241. Busbequius, his account of the habits of hyaenas, 22. C. Cairn Gorm, topaz in gravel, 220. Cambridge, gravel beds of compound character. 198. Camp, British, on the hill at Paviland, 90. Camp de Geants, mastodon at hdght of 7800 feet, 222. Campsey Hills, proofs of diluvial action on> 201. Campden Hills, flank the Bay of Moreton, 250. Canali, professor, his collection of bones from P^ombaro, 161. Canal, Oxford, how it passes the oolite escarp- ment, 254. Canstadt, on the Necker, bones in gravel> 25. ■ heap of remains found there, 180. bones of bear> hyaena, and elephant, in diluvium at« 101. Canterbury, elephant's remains near, 1 74. Cape, animals now peculiar to it inhabited York- shire, 44. Carlow county, ridges of limestone gravel in, 209. Carpathians, caves there described by Hayne and Bruckmann, 104. have been under water, 221. — — — gravel of two eras, 189. Catcott, Rev. Mr. his account of Hutton cave^ and specimens, 57* ■ his account of effects of diluvial currents, 225. Caverns preserve remains of antediluvian animals, 42. of Germany, general description of them, 109. eidst together with Assures at Gibraltar^ 154. Caves, their probable origin, 5. ■ not made by the hyaenas, ibid. ■ their extent in England, 6. connected with fissures^ 142. — ^— — open before the deluge, ibid. — — .* contain boues but partially, 143. — list of most remarkable on the continent, 104. Cette, osseous breccia, 148. Cerigo, osseous brecda, ibid. Cenis, Mont, gravel of two eras in contact, 189. INDEX. 285 Ceota, hreecia in a csfe opposite^ 160. Chalky pebbles of> near Northampton, 197. ■ ■ once extended far beyond its present limits in Dorset and Devon, 245, ■ ' flints in dilnvium of eastern counties, 194. ■ in Derbyshire, 1 97. Channel, English, its greatest depth less than 420 feet, 246. Charcoal in cave of Gailenrenth, 135. ■ at Pftviland, 83. Chard, outlier of chalk near it, 245. Charmootb, character of its valley, 241. ' elephants' remains near it, 174» Chamwood Forest may have supplied ^xt po r phyiy found in Berks and Oxon, 252. ^— — — — supplied porphyritic pebbles, 197, 198. Cherso, bones found there, 154. Chesil Bank, near Weymouth, its ingredients, and whence derived, 247. — ^— — — rolled tooth of elephant in it, ibid. Chevalier, M. his account of bones at Gibraltar, 148. Chellaston, character of diluvium on gypsum, 195. CherweU, quartzose pebbles in its valley and ad- jacent plains, 252. valley of, its gravel, 198. Cheshire, granite blocks on its plains, 199. Chartham, elephant's remains, 174. Chert in limestone beds at Kirkdale, 4. Chimney, aperture like, in roof of the cave at Pa- viland, 92. Chronology, inferences from cave at Kirkdale, 48. — — — cause of error in J. Hunter's idea of the age of bones in the German caves, 147. Chudleigh, caves and fissures in the limestone there, 69. Clackmannan, coal-field described by Mr JBald^ 1 85. Clay prevails in diluvium of east coat of En^and, 192. Clwydd, vale of, lead mine worked in gravel there, 177. Clwyddf vale of, elqihant'a teeUi inditto^ with the lead, 174. Cliff on each side the gorge of the Bode river, 118. Cliffs produced by diluvial denudation, 95. perish rapidly on east coast of England, 1 90. Clift, Mr. his account and drawings of Hymonth bones, 75, his assistance in ascertaining bones, 35. ■■■ observed marks of teeth on bones from Plymouth, 73. Clifton Hall, elephant's tusk found there, 179* Climate, probably warmer before the deluge, 44. ' state of antediluvian discussed, 45. ■ change (if any) took place at the do- luge, 47. Cock, bones of domestic, in cave at Kostnitz> 168. Compton-Bishop, in Mendip, cave with foxes* bones, 166. Concud, bones in caves at, 160. Concurrence of accidents necessary to the dis* covery of bones, 97. Continent, antediluvian same as the present, 162. its gravel and animals same as in Eng- land, 99. Conybeare, Rev* W. D. his extract from Cat- cott, 57. ■ ' his account of gravel in central parts of England, 195. Rev. J. J. his discoveries in Belgic villages near Bath, 91. Copley medal awarded tor the author's account of Kirkdale, in Philosophical Transactions, 1. Coral rag constitutes the rock at Kirkdale, 4. Cornwall, stream works with pebbles of tin ore, 177. Corsica, osseous breccia, 148. Copper ore in diluvial gravel in India, 220. Costorphine hill, its drifted boulders and de- nudations, 204. Cotswold hills, valleys of denudation on them, 256. Cottle, Joseph, Esq. his collections from Ply- mouth, 72. 286 INDEX. Crawley rocks (nearSwansea)> cave with bones^ 80« Crete> labyrinth of, a series of natural caves, 5. Criffle mountain, pebbles from it found in Cum* berland, 199. Crocodiles, fossil, indicate a warm climate, 45. Croke, Sir Alexander, observed boulders in Nova Scotia, 217. Cronebane hill, boulders of granite on it, 208. Cross Fell, dividing Shap from Darlington, 194. Cul de sac, termination of cave of Kiihloch, in a, 140. Cumberland, pebbles drifted to Darlington from, 194. Cumnor hill, quartzose pebbles on it, 248. Current, diluvian, came from the north in North America, 215. ' diluvial, came from the north, 193. ■ in Scotland, its main direction from the north-west, 205. —————— from north-east to Shipston-on- Stour and Oxford, 250. diluvian, proof of its coming from the north, 198, 199. its course in north of Oxon, 25 1 . proof of it in Stirlingshire, 203. 157. evidence of it on top of rock of Gibraltar, Curtois, Rev. Mr. his account of tusk of elephant at Tarifa, 159. Curved bones, polished on one side only, 31. Cuvier, his old list of animals in Gibraltar brec- cia, 149. — >— his former and present opinions of the age of the breccia at Gibraltar, 149. — — his recent opinion on the Gibraltar brec- cia, 229. his opinion of the age of the bones found in caverns and diluvium, 230. — — his opinion of the author's account of Kirkdale,231. ■ his conviction of the fact of a recent Cuvier, his account of deltas and actual causes, 190. " of bones in caves and fis- sures, 161. D. Dales falling into vale of Pickering, 3. Dalmatia, its osseous breccia in fissures, 1 48. — ^— — bones found there, 154. Dammerde of Germany, is diluvial loam, 191. DarlingtoU} diluvium near it, 192. ■ ■ granite block in the street, 194. ' pebbles and blocks from Cumberland in gravel near it, 194. Davy, Sir Humphrey, visits Kirkdalc,. 52. Dawson, R. Esq. his communication on Halkin lead mines, 179. Days of Mosaic creation, reference to discussion thereon, 2. Debacle of Saussure, efiect of diluvial waters, 212. Decay, difierent stages of, in teeth and bones, 30. — — of teeth and bones proportionate to ex- posure, 41. Deer, three species at Kirkdale, 18. De la Beche, Mr. notices correspondence in the coasts of Dorset and Normandy, 246. ^ his tusk of elephant from Char- mouth, 174. Deltas at mouth of Rhine, Po, and Nile, 190. De Luc, Mr. his account of caves in the Hartz, 100. ■ his opinion of age of Gibraltar breccia, 152. Deluge, proofs that it has excavated valleys, 237. ■ period of, not exceeding 6000 years ago, 51. — — summary of its proofs, by Mr. Greenougb, 224. deluge, 225. flfravel and loam referable to it, 185. INDEX. 287 Deluge^ has modified all valleys^ 258. proof that it was of short diuration« 256. ■ ■ transient, simultaneous, and not remote. 146. evidence of, at Gibraltar, 148. Den of hyaenas at Kirkdale, 19. Denmark, Prince of, his account of hysena at Paris, 28. Denudation, diluvial, producing cliffs, 95. — — — proofs of it in Devon, Dorset, and midland counties, 235. — valleys of, on chalk of Dorset, Wilts, Diluvial action, evidence of it in all the world, 171. ' proved by deposits of loam and gravel, 185. proofs of it on the continent, 211. » proofs of it in America, 215. ■ evidence of it in fissures, 150, 151. — — • general proof of it, 207. — ^— waters introduced mud and pebbles, 121. > their action in cave of Gailen- reuth, 136. — detritus introduced once only, 121. and Berks, 248. ' in Devon and Dorset, 1 99. — — proof of in Germany, 213. — — ^— proofs of near Edinburgh, 203. valley of, at the gorge of Rubeland, 118. ' near Oxford, subsequent to the in- troduction of the quartzose pebbles from War- wickshire, 254. not the only cause of valleys, 258. valley of the Weissent an example Diluvium, definition of, 2. ■ occurs on hills as well as in valleys, 191. ' character of it in Norfolk, Suffolk, Lin- colnshire, and Yorkshire, 194. ■ universal in caves, 143. in caves near Kostritz, 167. >^ contains elephants, 8tc. at Lawford, 1 76. noticed in the Alps, 221. ■ varies in quality in different places, 70. cliffs of, in Norfolk, Suffolk, and of it, 133. Essex^ 192. composed of loam, sand, or pebbles. 144. posterior to the period when extinct species of animals inhabited the caves, 238. ' proofs of, on coast of Devon, 244, 245. 139. ■ , in the Campsey hills, 201 . — valley of, at the gorge of Rabenstein, valleys of, round Muggendorf, 125. — — — proofs of, in Devon and Dorset, 235. Derbyshire gravel, its character, 195. , bones in lead mines, 62. Derdham Down, bones in a cave there, 60. Devon coast intersected by valleys of denudation, 239. Devonshire, Duke of, his block of iridescent fel- spar from the Neva, near Petersburg, 193. Diamonds in diluvial gravel, 220. Difference of breccia in caves and fissures, 151. - contains bones near the Hartz, 107. ' exists on summit of the rock of Gibral- tar, 156. differing from alluvium in Italy, 211. — — — term applied to " old alluvial covers** of Mr. Bald, 187. Dillwyn, L. W. Esq. visits cave of Paviland, 82. — — — his account of two cavities with human bones, 166. Dog, enmity with hyaena, 23. Dorchester, Oxon, pebbles from Warwickshire at and near it, 252. ' elephants* remains, 1 74, Dorset, elephants' remsdns near, ibid. Dorset coast intersected by valleys of denuda- tion, 239. Dover Straits shallow, and probably of diluvial origin, 44. 288 INDEX. Dover cout eorrasponds with that west of Calais^ 246. Dragons, fiones of bears> called dragons* bones^ 104. Drawings by Mr. CHft, Miss Morland, and Miss Danoombe> 15. Dream cave> near Wiilcsworth^ discovered in a lead mine, A. D. 1822, 6U Dressings, or filttvial farrows, near Edinburgh, 203. Dropmore, pebbles from Warwickshire in gravel at, 252. Dry valleys on the chalk of England and France, 257. Diidley» granite blocks on the west of it, 199. Duncombe Park, open fissure with bones, 54. — — — Charles, Esq. and Lady Charlotte, pre- sented specimens to Oxford Museum, 14. ■ his cave at Kirby Moor- side, 53. Dunstable, pebbles of porphyry, 197. Durham county, character of its diluvium, 194. Dust, black ammal, in cave of KUhloch, 138. Dyke of mud and stones filling fissures at Chud- leigh, 69. Dyserth, lead mine in gravel near it, 177. E. Ecclesiasticus, hysenas* enmity to dogs alluded to in, 23. Edinburgh, proof of diluvial action near it. 203. Museum, elephant*s tusks preserved there, 179. Eichstadt, bones in gravel, 26. Elephant, fossil, or mammoth, its history, 172. ^— ^— — found with flesh entire in ice, 183. ■ preserved in ice, 45. — — — — fossil, characteristic of diluvium, 171. — — — «— common to caves and gravel beds, 146. -<-^-~— • inhabited England, 42. lephant, fossil, its Client in England and else- where, 172. —— — found in cave of Schneideiloch and Zahnloch, 106. fossil, on plain of Mexico, 222. — — ^ remains of, in lead mine, explained. 177. at Tarifa, near Gibraltar, 159. Elephants, diiefly young ones, at Kirkdale, 18. — — — bones long ago noticed in Britun, 172. ■ I ■ , supposed to be bones of giants, 173. ■ — ' have been imported by the Romans, ibid. ' extent of their bones in Britain, 174. ' theirremsdns prove thegpravel of Europe and America to be of the same era, 218. — — were eaten by hysenas, 37. do they occur fossil in central and southern Asia and in Africa, and if so, are they of extinct species, 170. number found in Germany, 1 80. lived near where their bones are found. 184. found in diluvium of Scotland, 179. EUk, abundant under Irish peat bogs, 180. , fossil, found also in diluvium at Walton, ibid. Elster River flows in a valley of denudation, 213. ' , valley of the, flanked by caves near Leipsig, 167. England, its antediluvian inhabitants, 96. English Channel, in part a valley of denudation, 246. Engulfment of many rivers near Kirkdale, 6. Ensbam Heath, quartz crystals in its gravel, 25 1 . Entrance of caves once difierent from their pre- sent mouths, 125. Erie Lake, dilnvian gravel near it, 216. Esbach River, bones in caves on both sides, 103. Esper, his description of Gailenreuth, 99. — ^— his view of the cave of Crailenrenth, 1 33. his plate of broken bear's bone reunited, 75, INDEX. 289 Essex, elephants on the coast of> 173. Etienne, St., valley of, was a postdiluvian lake, 216. Evenlode valley^ state of its gravel, 198. qnartzose pebbles in its valley, as well as on the adjacent plains, 251. Excavation evident on the coast of Dorset and Devon, 244. Excavations, artificial, in undervaultings at Scharz- feld, 116. Excrement of hyaenas in cave at Kirkdale, 20. Exostosis, examples of it in fossil bones, 74. Extent of bear*s bones over Germany, &c. 105. caves and fissures in England and the continent, 161. Extinct species of elephant, rhinoceros, hippopo- tamus, and hyaena, 41 . F. Farey, Mr. his account of gravel in Derbyshire, 195. Finland, granite blocks drifted into Russia, 193. Fissure communicating with cave at Wirksworth, 64. — — sides scratched by falling in of ■ plains in the north of, covered with granite blocks^ 193. Gibson, Sir Alex. Maitland, his tusk of elephant from Scotland, 179. ' ■■■ " John, Esq. of Stratford, his collection ^ first brought specimens to London, presented ditto to public collections, 14. Gibraltar, osseous breccia in fissures and caves, 148. bones in same state as at Gailenreuth, 153. rock 1439 feet above the sea, ibid. Glass bottle in breccia at, 156. Glen Roy, parallel roads or terraces near it, the only case in Britain, 217. Gnawing,' marks of, on bones at Kirkdale, 16. '• by a living hyaena, similiar to those on bones at Kirkdale, 38, and Plate XXIII. — ^ marks of teeth on bones at Snndwick, 106. Gbkts'Hole, cave at Paviland, 82. Gogmagog Hills, chalk capped with gravel, 1 98. Gold in gravel of South America, 218. obtained from stream works in Englandt Scotland, Wales, and Ireland, 210. sand in Africa of diluvial origin, 220. .- its general dispersion, 220. Goldfiiss, his account of bones from Westphalia, 113. caves near Muggendorf, 100. Goose bone found at Lawford in diluvium, 27. Gorge of the Bode River at Baumans Hohle, 118. . diluvian, at Peckaw, containing caves, 161. of the Amo, at Incisa, near Florence, 182. at New Malton, 43. Graminivora more liable than camironi to fall into fissures, 56. ■ ' chiefly in fissures, and why, 152. Granite blocks in Russia and north of Germany, 193. Gravel considerable in East Devon and Dorset, 247. — pebbles and blocks can be traced to their source, 191. diluvial, its compound character, ibid. in midland counties described, 195, et seq. 256. miscellaneous, at Shipston-on-Stour, 250. partly angular, partly round, at London, its position proves a deluge, 225. its compound character proves a deluge. 227. in midland coun- ties, 196. diluvian, near Lake Huron, 215. ■ partly angular, partly round, at Oxford, 255. 208. Gorges not referable to actual causes, 214. of limestone in Wicklolsr and Wexford, diluvian, near Edinburgh, 203. — — of two eras in Alpine regions, 189. Greenough, Mr. his summary of proofs of a deluge, 224. first principles of geology, 188. Grenville, Lord, finds quartzose pebbles at Dropmore, 252. Grew mentions elephants in Northamptonshire, 174. Grey wethers on the downs of Wilts and Berks, 248. Grimes, Mr. his tusk of elephant firom ^Lawford, 177. Grovant mine near Halkin, 178. Guelderland, hills of diluvium crossing it, 189. Gypsum, containing caves at Kostritz, 167. INDEX. 291 H. Uakewilli H. Esq. send« head of rhinoceros to Oxford, 1 76. Haldon-hill^ S. W. of Exeter> probably once covered with chalk, 245. Halkin, valleys of denudation in limestone hills at, 178. ' elephants* remains in lead mine at) 174. Hall, Sir James, thinks the granite blocks in Tees- dale came from Cumberland, 194. --———— his proofs of diluvial action near Edinburgh, 203. Hamster rat in cave at Kostritz, 167* Hare-jaw in cave at Kirkdale, 19. Harmony of caves in Germany and England, 1 08. of loam, pebbles, and bones, contained in caves, 145. — — Gailenreuth with other caves, 136. Harrison, Mr. first notices the bones at Kirkdale, 14. Hartz Forest, bones of hyaena found there, 24. — caves described by Leibnitz and De Luc, 104. — bones in diluvium near, at Osterode and Dorst, 26. Hawks supply birds* bones in a recent breccia at Gibraltar, 155. Heukelum, bones of elephant washed up by bursting of a dyke, 190, 191. Hearne, his description of bear's food, 33. Heaps of bones, why none outside the cave at Kirkdale, 39. Henley-hill, quartzose pebbles, 248. Henley, pebbles from Warwickshire on the hills near, 255. Hertfordshire, its gravel, 196. Herzburg, bones in diluvium near, 107. Hieronymus mentions hyaenas robbing graves, 23. Hills of east coast of England capped by dilnvium, 192. their form proves a deluge, 226. Hinckley, its gravel, 196. Hippopotamus found in Lancashire, 176. teeth of, at Kirkdale, 118. Hippopotamus inhabited England, 42. Hoare, Sir Richard, finds rods and rings of ivory in barrows, 91. Hog, remains in Hutton cave on Mendip, 59. Hohen Mirschfeld, hill in the district of caves, in Franconia, 130. Holdemess coast composed of low cliff of dilu- vium, 192. ■ elephants* remains in, 173. Holenkalk, cavernous limestone at Muggendorf, 123. Holland shows alluvial and diluvial deposits in contact, 188. HoUman, his account of rhinoceros at Schanfeld, 106. ■ bones in. diluvium ,at Horden, 107. Hollows in BieFs Hdhle filled with mud and sand, 122. Home, Sir E. his description of bones from Ores- ton, near Plymouth, 67. Honiton Vale, chalk flints on ridges inclosing it, 245. Horden, at foot of the Hartz, bones in dilnvium near 107. Horns of deer, fragments of, at Kirkdale, 1 9. ' some fallen off by necrosis, 32. none of oxen found at Kirkdale, and why. 33. rhinoceros never found fossil, ex- cept in ice, and why, ibid. — of sheep used for manure, ibid. Horse, remains in cave at Kirkdale, 18. Houghton-on-the-hiU, its gravel, 196. Hue-huetoca, in Mexico, elephants* remains, there, 222. Human bones near Kirby Moorside, 54. -^— — remmns in caves, not antediluvian, 164. — — — examples of them in England, ibid. pp2 292 INDEX. Homan remains in cave at PkTiland> 85. 87. — ^— bones at Kostritz more recent than those of rhinoceroS) 169. ■ in a cave in Spain, 1 60. ——««—— to be looked for in dilavinm of central Asia^ 170. Hnmber Month shows allnyiumon dilavinm^ 190. Humboldt^ Baron> his account of elephants at Mexico and Qaito> 183. bones found by him at high m levels, 222. Hunter, John, his account of bones from German caves, 146. Hutchinson, Mr. his account of diluvial action, 225. Hutton cave, with ochre and bones, in the Men- dips, 57* Hurley Bottom, elephants* remains, 174. Huron Lake, diluvial gravel, boulders, and de- nudations, 215. Hyde Park, quartzose pebbles from Warwick- shire, 198.232. Hyenas, three species of modem, 21 • — live in holes and rocks^ found with wolves, 22. — — — — eat bones and putrid flesh, 21 . —— -*~ drag prey to their dens, 22. , number of their teeth, 21. .- habitations and habits of modem« ibid. — dig human bodies from their graves, 21, 22. habits mentioned in scripture and classic writers, 23. ■ enmity to dogs, 22, 23. strength of jaw and neck, 23, 24. eyes formed to see in the dark, 24. eat their own species, and parts of their own bodies, 28. carry off a living man, 23. ■ ■- carry prey to their dens, 22. I - heaps of bones near their den, ibid. (Cape) devoured bones at Oxford, 37. HysBnas common to caves and gravel beds, 107* 146. ■ difference of fossil from recent species, 24. ■ extent of fossil species, ibid. — discovered at Lawford in diluvium, 26. evidence of two or three hundred at Kirk- dalcy 17. — — bones fractured equally with those of other animals, 16. — teeth of all ages and conditions, 29. jaws, in what state found, ibid. — — fed on elephants, rhinoceros, &c. 36. inhabited England and Europe generally before the deluge, 40. •— »- fossil species extirpated by the dduge, 38. why the skeleton of the last surviving was not found at Kirkdale, 38. Hypotheses, several, to explain the origin of bones, 97. — *— — three may be proposed to explain the origin of the bones at Plymouth $ two of them untenable, 76, 77, 78. — — — — three, proposed to explain the phe- nomena at Kirkdale, 39, 40. Hymalaya mountains, bones of horse, deer, and bear, height of 1 6,000 feet, 222. I. Icebergs containing mammoth bones, 46. Identity of time and manner of introducing dilu- vium to cave, 145. Ilford, elephants found there, 175. lUyria, bones in caves and issures, 148. Imrie, Colonel, describes birds* bones at Gibraltar, 93. his account of breccia of Gibraltar, 153. his account of the Canqpsey hilla. 201. Indsa, gorge of, in the Val d'Amo, 181. INDEX. 298 Inflammation^ oBsific marks of^ in iTory at Pkvi- land, 86. Inoscnlation* of valleys proves dilnvian action^ 226. Inundation, has covered the highest monntains, 223. proofs of one near Edinburgh, 204. ■ one only proved by state of the caves. 145. •has covered the highest monntains»22 1 • Ireland, elephants* remains there, 180. — — - proofs of diluvial action in, 207. elephants* remains, 174. Isaiah mentions hyaenas, 23. Ischuber, in Croatia, breccia containing bones, 161. Isle of Dogs, elephants* remains, 1 74. Italy, caves containing bones, 161. bones in Val d'Amo, 26. Ivory fossil in Scotland, fit for the turner's use, 179. fit for the turner, at Bridlington, ib. rods and rings with human skeleton, 88. fragments rudely cut in cave of Paviland, 89. beads and bodkins in sepulchral barrows, 91 . J. Jaw bones broken equally with the rest at Kirk- dale, 16. Jena, valleys of denudation near it, 213. Jeremiah mentions hyaenas, 23. Johnson, his account of habits of hyaenas, 21, 22. Jones, his account of diluvial action, 225. Jura, blocks of granite from Mont Blanc on it, 212. — limestone in Franconia, 124. K. Kennet, grey wethers in a valley near it, 248. Kensington Gravel Pits, pebbles firom Warwick- shire, 252. Kent's Hole, a cavern near Torbay, 69. Kew, elephants' remiuns at, 174. Kidd, Dr. his account of Oxford gravel, 266. . the action of rivers, 188. — gravel near Oxford, 1 75. Kildare, ridges of limestone gravel, 209. Kilmaurs, elephant's tusk found there, 179. King's-lines, Gibraltar, concretion containing peb- bles, 156. Kingsland, elephants in diluvium, 175. Kirby Moorside, cave discovered in 1822, 52. Kirkdale, cave discovered in 1821, 1. ' situation, 3. ■ entrance of cave, 6. — — form and dimensions of cave, 7. floor of cave covered with mud, 17. — — cave was a den of hyaenas, 19. Kirkham, position on the gorge of Malton, 4. Klanstein Cave, the same as Rabenstein, 129. Kliiterhohle, caves with bones, 112. Knight, Rev. H. his conjectures on the fossil ivory rings, 91. Kostritz, bones discovered in caves ther^ 25. Kotzebue, his account of icebergs, with mammoth bones, 46. his account of elephants near Behring's Straits, 183. Kremsminster Abbey, bones of bear in diluvium, 101. Kiihloch, description of cave, 137* Kylos, high ridge in the Hymalaya, containing bones, 222. L. Labrador felspar, in England and Russia, 193. Lac lunse, in cave of Fox Holes near Wirksworth, 65, Lake, antediluvian, near Kirkdale, 19. in the vale of Pickering, 43. would exist in the Val d'Amo, without the gorge at Incisa,]82. 394 INDEX, Lake6> their tendenqr to fill up, rather than Imrst, 213. Lancashire, granite bl^ks on its plains, 199. Land-floods, did not introduce the mnd to -eaves, 50. Land-shells in fissures, and not in caves, 151. ' in breccia of Gibraltar, 149. 154. Lark bones at Kirkdale, 1 5 — 34. Lawford, near Rugby, elephants and other re- mains there in diluvium, 176. , hyeena discovered there^ 26. other animals in diluvium there, 27. Lead-mine, containing an entire rhinoceros, 62. ■ in North Wales, containing elephants* teeth, stags* horns, &c. 1 11 , Ledges in caves covered 't^ith diluvial sediment, 123. Lee*s Natural History of Lancashire, head of hip- popotamus engraved in it, 176. Leibnitz, his accoiint of caves in the Harts, 100. Leicestershire, its gravel, 195, 196. Lena, islands at its inouth full of bones, 46. 183. Lewisham, elephants' remains, 174. Leyden, bones of elephant washed up by bursting of a dyke, 1 90. Licome, or fossil unicorn, bones used for medicine, 104. Lickey Hill, near Birmingham, may have supplied quartzose pebbles, 249. Limestone, cavernous, round Mnggendorf, 124. Lincoln, character of diluvium, 193. Lincolnshire coast, formed of diluvium, 192. , , the Wash, shows alluvium on di- luvium, 190. Linnaeus, why he overlooked the evidences of a deluge, 225. Litchfield gravel its character, 195. ... > pebbles in new red sandstone, 241. List of animals found at Kirkdale, 1 5. XJandebie, in Caermarthen. Cave with human bones, 166« Ll8nrw8t> graevel and dihivial scratdiea aear it, 206, Loam in caves not produced by deeonpoaitioa of the roof, 144. ' '•'■•" with;^ the cav^, resembles the dilimBm without, 145. ' ■ *' noticed by De Luc^ Leibnit^ Esper, and Rosenmoller^ 1D9. - • in caves at Kostritz, 167. - — in cave at Kirby Mooraide, 53. in cave of 8cbarEfeld,^lbirademiiHii^i 115. ■^ . » . - in cave of Zahnloch, 131. in cave of Oaileureuth, 136. in caves of Germany, 102. in fissures and caverns at Plymouth^ 68. — in osseous breccia of CHbraltar, 160. red in Mediterranean breccia^ ibid. diluvial at Gibraltar, 156. varies itf quality vdth the a^iicent b9U, 191. Loders, Dorset, elephants^ remains at, 174. Lombardy, torrents in the plain of, 188.' London, remaitis of ^elbphant under -Hi^ streets, 174. Long Compton, pebbles of quartzose sandstone, 250. Lucan mentions hyienas* bones as used in enchant- ments, 23. Lucas, J. Esq. his femur of rhinoceros, 81. Lutterworth, its gravel, 196. Lyme Regis, eleph&nts* remains, 1 74. Lyme, valleys intersect the coast near, 239* Lyme, valley simply of diluvial origin, 241. M. Macclesfield, granite blocks on the west of it, 199. MfddiSiihead, pebbles from Warwickshire on the hills round, 198. 252. INDEX. 296 Maghery, in Ireland, elephants' remains there, 180. Malacca^ tin in dilavinnij 220. Malbay River, in valley of St. Etienne, 216. Malina, gravel produced by its torrents, 188. Malton Gorge, the only drainage to the Vale of Pickering, 4. 43. Mammoth, or fossil elephant, its history, 172. Manganese, incnisting sand in cave at Kirkdale, 10. — — — ■ in dilavinm at Plymouth and else- where, 74. Manor Vale, cave near Kir by Moorside^ 52. Market Harboroogh, its gravel, 196. Maryborough, ridges of limestone gravel, 209. Mastodon, bones found at 7800 feet high, 222. Meade, Dr. his account of boulders in New York, 218. Meath, ridges of limestone gravel, 209. Meduna, gravel produced by its torrents, 188. Mexico, stream tin in its gravel, 118. plains of, afford remains of elephants, 222. Mice> bones of, at Kirkdale, 19. Michael's, St. cave at Gibraltar, 154. Miller, Mr. discovers human remains at Wokey Hole, 165. his discovery of bones near Clifton, 60. Mitchell, Mr. his account of elephants in North America, 183. Mole, in cave at Kbstritz, 167. in cave at Paviland, 93. Molineux, Dr. his account of elephants in Ireland, 180. Molpa Grotto. Containing bones of mminantia, 161. Monkeys, eat their own tails, 29. Mont Blanc, under water when blocks were drifted from it to the Jura, 221. .— — — Granite transported from it to the Jura, 212. Moreton,Mr. mentions elephants inNorthampton- shire^ 174* Moreton in the Marsh> pebbles accumulated in its bay, 250. Morland, Miss, her drawings forCuvier» 177. • and for the author, 15. Mouth of caves, the present not the antediluvian ones, 142. 'Mountains, the highest, have been nnder water, 223. Mud, or loam, diluvian, in Kirkdale cave, 49. covers the floor at Kirkdale, 10. introduced to caves at the deluge, 143. no alternating beds of it, 50. in Bauman*s Hohle, 1 1 9. in Forster*s Hohle, 128. found by Mr. Gell, in caves and fissures of Derbyshire, 65. — with sand in Biel's Hohle, 123. or loam, in caves of Germany, 108, 109, 110. iu veins or dykes, near Petersburg, 112. in nearly all the cavities at Plymouth, 70. postdiluvian, in Wokey Hole, &c. 50. Muggendorf, district of, caves in limestone, 124. Mumbles, near Swansea, fissure with hvman bones, 166. Mur River, in Styria, passing the gorge of Pekaw, 161. Muston, drainage in Vale of Pickering, 43. N. Nerita shells, found in a barrow near Warminster, 91. found with hnman skeleton at Pavi- land> 88. Newark, gravel near, 194. Newcastle, much diluvium east of the town, 192. New Grange, catacomb in county of Meath, 165. Newnham in Warwickshire, elephants' bones there, „ 176, Newton, near Bath, elephants* remains, 174. New red sai^d-stone contains qnartzose pebbles, 249. 296 New York, boolden and gravel deacribed by Dr. Meftde, 218. Nibbling, marka of, on bone* at Oreston, 73. Nice, its osaeons breccia in fissares, 1 48. —~ brecd& of two eras, 1 53. Nicboll, Sir Jobn, £a,veB in his park, 80. Nicholaston pariah, contuns Crawley Rocks, ib. Norfolk, character of its dilnviom, 193. I--I' elephuita on the coaat of, 1 73. Normandy coast correaponda with that of Dorset, 246. Northamptonshire, elephants' remaina, 174. North latitndes, once inhabited by tropical genera of animals, 47. North Leach, ralleya of deondation near it, 257. Northnmberland. Character of diluvinm, 193. North Wales, elephants' remains, 174. Norway pebbles, drifted to the east coaat of Eng- knd, 192. Norwich, elephants' remsins, 174. Nova Scotia, granite bloclts oo its highest hills of slate, 217. Noienberg, district of caves near, 124. Nymegen, cliff of dilnvinm on the left bank of the Waal, 189. Oasero, bones fonnd there, 154. Osterode, bones In dilnvinm near, 26. 107* Otter Valley, simply of dilnvial origin, 241. Outliers of chalit in Dorset and Devon, 245. ' or detached masses of strata, prove a deloge, 226. Owl bones in cave at Kostritz, 167. Ox, two species at Kirkdale, 18. Oxford, Bishop of, 14. gravel, its componnd character, 198. 255. — ^' ■' elephants in gravel at, and near, 175. Pallas, his acconnt of elephants in Siberia and Rossia, 183. Palombara, cave containing bones of bear, 81. Parallel roads, acconnt of them in North America, 216. Pargeter, Mr. his acconnt of lH«ccia at Gil^tar, 158. Paris, proof of dilnvial action near, 211. Parry, Captun, his acconnt of animals in Mel- ville lalaod, 33. Paviland cave, with human and antediluvian bones. Ochre contuna bones in carities of limestone on Mendip, 57. — ^ in dilnvinm of fissures near Spa, 111. -.^— in cave near Wirksworth, 65. Oolite occnrs at Kirkdale, 4. .—^—pebbles, none on snmmits roundOxford, 253. Oppian mentioiu bynna's ennuty to dogti 23. Onrton, list of ani'"i'l" discovered there, 75. ivea and fissures, deacript'ion of, 68. Lverns, near Plymoath, with bones, 67. a prove a deluge, 227. da of cavea resembles tltat of Gi- Pebbles mark the course of diluvial waters, 253. ' their position on snmmits shows the re- cent origin of valleys, 253. ~—^ of two classes in diluvinm of east coaat of England, 192. ».ii ■ - 1 drifted from Norway to east coaat of England, ilnd, — — in caves of Germany, 108. — ■■» I on snmmits in Devon and Dorset, 199> dilnvial, in the Campsey bills, 201. —~- drifted from the North to Shipston and Moreton, 25P. not rounded within the caves, 119. in cave of Zahnloch, 131. in'sHohlejllS. INDEX. 297 Pebbles in breccia of Nice> 152. iD caves at Kostritz^ 167. raret if any, in cave at Kirkdale, 7. ■ none in cave of Kiihlocb, and wby> 140, in cave of Gailenreatb, 134. ■ in caves in Spain> 160. in cave and fissure at Hatton> 58. —not introduced to cave by land-floods, 118. — - in osseous breccia of Mediterranean, &c. 150. ■ overlooked by most writers on the caves, introduced to caves at the deluge, 143. 145. • did not enter by present mouth of caves, ■ in caves and fissures near Spa, 111. — — - their course from Warwickshire to Lon- don, 252. — -— of adjacent hills mixed with those from 109. 126. Norway, 193. on summit of Rock of Gibraltar, 157. Peckaw, in Styria, caves containing bears* bones at, 161. Pennant, his account of hysenas at the Cape> 23. ■ ' mentions elephants' teeth in North Wales, 174. Pentland, Mr. found bones of bear in the Val d'Amo, 110. ' his communication on the Val d*Amo, 182. ■ his notice of bones in caves of Italy, 161. Pentuan, whales* bones in stream tin mine, 1 86. Periods, evidence of four in cave at Kirkdale, 48, 49. Phillips, Mr. his account and engraving of the Siberian elephant in ice, 183. notices correspondence of coast near Dover and Calais, 246. Pickering, Vale of, its analogies to the Val d'Arno, 182. ■ geological structure and boundary of, 3« Pigeon at Kirkdale, 15, 34. Pinnacles in BieFs Hohle have mud and sand on their summits, 123. Pisa, osseous breccia, 148. Plastic clay formation, traces of it on Blackdown, 245. Pliny mentions hysenas robbing graves, 23. Plymouth, three sets of caves there, %1 , et seq. — — - Earl of, his stages horns from Dyserth, *i78. Politz, caves with bones near it, 167. Polish, partial, on one side only of curved bones, at Kirkdale, 31. on a block of stone at Zahnloch, 131. ■ on floor of cave at Gailenreuth, 137. Pontypool, torrent near it, 1 88. Porphyry pebbles near Dunstable, 197. ' at Abingdon, and near Oxford, 198. in Bagley Wood, 252. Portisham, Dorset, blocks resembling Hertford- shire puddingstone, 245. Postscript, containing the opinion of M. Cnvier, 220. Powder, black, in cave of Kuhloch, 1 38. Prescot, J. Esq. presented rhinoceros* head from Siberia, 177. Prince's Lines, at Gibraltar, birds' bones found there, 154. Provengal, Mr. his account of osseous breccia at Nice, 148. Q. Quartz pebbles on hills round Charmouth, &c 247. Quartzose pebbles in midland counties, &c. 249. — — — ^— if not from Warwickshire, came from some more distant point, 255. ■ rounded before their last trans* port, ibid. QQ Quito, remains of mutodon fonnd there by Mnm- boldt, 222. Rabbits, bones of, at Kirkdale, 19. Rabenstein, position and description of cave, I29> Rats. See water rats. , Raven, bones of, in cave at Kirkdale, IS. 34. Ravenglass, granite drifted thence to Cheshire and Staffordshire, 199. Red chalk pebbles at Shipston, drifted from the north, 250. —— clay and pebbles in the breccia of Nice, 152. earth on top of Rock of Gibraltar, 157. ■ " in fissores and caves at Oihraltar, ibid. — — oxyde of iron on boues of a woman at Pavi- land, 88. Rhinoceros' flesh preserved in ice, 45- inhalnted England, 42. . — I entire skeleton in a lead-mine, 61,62. ■ fonnd at Plymonth, 67. — — ■ ■■ in cave at Scharzfeld, 106. 118. - atTanla, near Gibraltar, 159. Rhine, dilnvinm on its bonks at Amheim, 169. Richardson, Dr. his acconnt of denndation in the north of Ireland, 207. Ridges of gravel on limestone plains of Ireland, 209. Ridinger, his engraving of bears, 132. Ridlington, in Rnttandshire, chalk there, 250. Rings of ivory witli hnmui bonea at Paviland, 89, mnt of effects prodnced by them. ^^^^ Rings 01 ivory wiin hi n Rivers, their action described by Kidd, Oreenoogh, and Brongniart, 1 88. why they prodace little effect, 236- why they conld not have made valleys. - in cave of Snndwick, ibid. - in caves of Germany, ibid, -teeth at Kirkdale, 18. - fonnd at I^awford, 27. - with hnman bones in cave of Kiistritz, Robin Hood's Bay, elephants' remuns there, 173. Rock basins in month of the cave at Paviland, 83. on summit of Rock of (Mbraltar, 157- RodboroDgh, near Strond, elephants' remains, 174. Rods of ivory with human bones, 68. Roof and sides of natural caves have no bones adhering to them, 1 11 . ] 16. 134. Rosenmnller, his description of Gulenrenth, 99. his opinion of the origin of bones in caves, 103. Rosia Bay, Gibraltar, breccia found there, 1 54. Rnbeland village, under the month of Bauman's HShle, 118. Ruddle covering human bones at Paviland, 88. Rogby, bones preserved from decay by clay, 13, - elephants* remains near, 174. 176. Ruminantia, why rarely found in caves, 105. bones of, in a cave near Naples, 161. Rnssia, plains covered with blocks of I^nland granite, 193- elephants there described by Pallas, 183. Rutlandshire, its gravel, 19(i. Saale river flows in a valley of denndation, 213. Sack, Mr., of Bonn, fonnd bones at Sundwick, 25. ^—■^^ his discoveries in caves of Sundwick, 106. Salcomb Hill, angular chalk flinU on it, 245. Saleve monntain, granite blocks on it, 212. Salisbury Phun, elephants' remains, 174. Salmond, Wm. Esq.* of York, his collection ; mea- sures the cavej pre his account of dilvial action in Switzer- land, 212. Saw, marks of, on a bone in the cave of Pavi- land, 87. Saxony, caves containing bones, 25. Scarbrorough, elephants* remains, 173. Scharzfeld cave described ; contains bones, mud, and pebbles, 113. Schlotheim, Baron, his account of bones at Kos- tritz, 25. — human bones at Kostritz, 167* his hypothesis to explain the occurrence of human bones with those of rhino- ceros at Kostritz, 169. ' his account of denudation in Germany, 213. Scotland, elephants* remains in, 174. 179. Scratches on surface of rocks in Stirlingshire, 202. ' ■' near Edinburgh, 203. Sea, its present effects small and partial, 286. and land did not change place at the de- luge, 162. Section of gravel beds, containing pebbles of lead, 178. of lias quarries near Axminster, 242. Sedgefield, granite and greenstone boulders there, 194. Sedgewick, Professor, his notice of bones in a lead mines in Derbyshire, 179. --—--—----------———----—----—— Cambridge gravel, 198. Sediment, why little in cave of Kiihloch, 141. Seilberg, near Canstadt, heap of remains found there, 180. Seine, valley of, proofs of diluvial action, 211. Shalk, in Cumberland, pebbles of Criffle sienite at, 199. Shap, granite drifted to Darlington from, 194. Sheep in cave at Kostritz, 167. Shells, recent marine shells in cave at Paviland, 83 and 85. Sheppy, elephantb' remains found at, 174. Shipston on Stour, pebbles of quartzose sand- stone, &c., 250. Siberia, elephants described by Pallas, 1 83. Sicily, osseous breccia, 148. Sid valley, simply of diluvial origin, 24-0. Sidmouth, valleys intersect the coast, 239. Silt derived from destruction of cliffs on east coast of England, 100. Skeletons, none at Kirkdale found entire, and why, 37 . not entire in caves of the continent. 100. rarely entire, 183. Skewer made from a wolfs toe at Paviland, 89. Skinner, Rev. Mr. his examination of Burringdon cave, 165. Skulls, none found entire at Kirkdale, and why, 16. 101, 102. in what part found most perfect at Gailen- reuth, 134. found at Gibraltar, 154. Smell of bones like charnel-house at Oreston, 74. Smith, Rev. Mr. his collection at Kirby Moorside, 12. Snipe, bones of, at Kirkdale. See Plate XIII. Soemmering, Professor, his specimen of injury repaired in head of an hysena, 74. — — — — his fossil bear*s head nearly similar to recent brown bear, 105. Solid bones, numbers disproportionate to that of softer bones, 16. Solinus, mentions hysenas as robbing graves, 23. Solway Frith, pebbles^ have crossed it to Cum- berland, 199. Southam, gravel near it, 1 96. qq2 30() INDEX. Spa, caves and fissures^ near Spa, contain dilu- vium, 111. Spain, bones in a cave in Arragon, 160. Sparman, his account of hyaenas at the Cape, 23. Species, identity of, in caves and gravel, 145. Spencer, Earl, gravel in his Park at Althorp, 197. Spilsby, in Lincolnshire, the nearest red chalk to Shipston, 250. Splinters of bone in Kirkdale cave, 16. ————— stamped by pebbles atBauman's Hohle, 119. Springs of Chcrwell and Evenlode, without the escarpment of the oolite, 254. Squirrel, bones of, in cave at Kostritz, 167. St. Asaph, section of shaft in gravel near, 179. Stafford, granite blocks on the west of it, 199 . Staffordshire, granite blocks on its plains, ibid. Stainmoor, blocks of Sbap granite there, 194. Stalactite, dehnitioo of, 9. on roof and sides of cave at Kirkdale, 10. tube found in horizontal position at Kirkdale, 44. invests bones in German caves, 102. beautiful in Biel's Hohle, 122. Stalagmite in Forst«r s Hohle, 127. upper crust of it above tlie mud, in cave at Kirkdale, 1 1 . — -^— does not alternate with beds of mud. ibid. 108. under crust of it below the mud, ibid, of different periods, at Kirkdale, 48, 49. upper crust of, at Kirkdale, 51 . single crust in all the caves of Germany, crust much broken on the floor at Scharzfeld, 1 1 4. ■ crust still perfect in Bauman'sHohle, 1 20. ' single crust in BieVs Hohle, 123. — — crust and pillar at Gailenreuth, 134. — — — does not alternate with mud or peb- Stirlingshire, proofs of diluvial action in, 201. Stokes, C. Esq. his communication on Halkin mines, 174. Strabo, mentions importation of ivory ornaments to Britain, 91. Strangways, Hon. William, his account of mud veins near Petersburg, 112. , his distinction of allu- vium and diluvium, near Petersburg, 187. Stream works, for procuring metals from diluvial gravel, 118. containing pebbles of lead, 177. ' afford proofs of diluvial action, 218. Stockton on Tees, diluvium near it, 192. Stonehenge, made of grey wethers, 248. Stonehouse, caves in quarry near marine barracks at, 68, 69. Stow in the Wold, ridge affecting locally the course of the diluvial waters, 25 1 . ■ valleys of denudation near, 257. Stutgard, remains in the Royal Cabinet, 180. Suffolk, elephants on the coast, 173. character of diluvium, 1 93. Sumatra, diluvial tin in islands near it, 220. Summary of facts proving an universal deluge, 226. Sumner, Rev. I. B. his opinion of the force of water, 237. Sundwick, bones found there, 25. — — caves, with bones, 112. Superga Mountain, near Turin, boulders on it, 211. Surface, affords no indication of cavities below, 70. fissures and caves at Gibraltar, communi- cate with, 154. Swallow holes, extent of them in England, 6. ————— in Derbyshire, ibid. — — — or fissures, modem cattle lost in bles, 144« them, 79, Sywell, near Northampton, pebbles of chalk there, 197. INDEX. 301 T. Tagliamento, gravel produced by its torrents, 188. Talarcocb^ section and organic remains at, 1 78- Talbot, T. M. Esq. caves on his property at Ni- cholaston> 80. Miss, bones from Crawley, in her col- lection, 81. Talus of post-dilavian gravel resting on diluvium, 189. Tarifa, remains of elephant and rhinoceros, 159. Tapir fossil, in Val d'Amo, 182. Taro River, effect of its inundation, 188. Teeth, number found at Kirkdale, 17. ■■ mixed with broken bones at Kirkdale, 1 6. ■ number of, disproportionate to that of the bones, 16. first set of young hyaenas, 17. — ^— *- of old hyaenas worn to the stumps, 29. fragments of, in breccia, 49. — — - in due proportion to the bones except at Kirkdale, 142. Terraces, or parallel roads, left by the bursting of lakes in North America, 216. ■ parallel on banks of Rhine, Salza, and Iser, 217. Terrain d'atterissement, is diluvial loam, 191. Thames Mouth, affords alluvium on diluvium, 1 90. Thames Valley, state of its gravel, 198. Theux, cave with stalagmite, and recent bones, near, 112. Thiede, near Brunswick. Heap of remains found there, 181. Throat of cave at Kiihloch, inclined upwards, 141. Thuringerwald^ caves at Glucksbrun, and Lei- benstein, 104. Tiger, at Kirkdale, 1 7. polish in his den, 32. found at Plymouth, 72. rare at Kirkdale, 35 Tiger, tooth of, in breccia of Antibes, 149. Tin, diluvial, in Malacca, Banca, and islands near Sumatra, 220. Topaz in gravel of Cairn Gorm, 220. Torre, gravel produced by its torrents, 188. Torrents, their effect at base of mountains, 1 88. Tortoises indicate warm climate^ 45. Trap, cut by valleys of denudation in Stirlingshire, 202. Trebbia River, effect of its inundations, 188. Trent, gravel in valley of, 1 94. Trentham, elephants' remains near, 1 74. Trimmer, Mr. remains found by him at Brentford, 176. Tungusia, hairy elephant found there preserved in ice, with its flesh entire, 45. 172. 183. Tusk of elephant, in cave at Paviland, 86. Tynemonth, much diluvium near it, 1 92. U. Undervaultings in the floor at Scharzfeld, full of bones, 115. Underwood, Mr. his account of the Paris hyena eating his own feet, 28. — observation of diluvial action on the rocks near Llanrwst, 206. Unicorn fossil, old name of fossil bears, 104. drawing of fossil in Lidbnitz, ibid. Urn, sepulchral, in cave of Zthnloch, 131 . UrnSy sepulchral, in cave at Gailenreuth, 1 00. Urus, in gravel at Butterby, Derbyshire, 63 . V. Val d'Arno, bones in diluvium of, 26. — — — its analogies to Vale of Pickering, 182. Valleys round Muggendorf resemble gutters in a meadow, 1 26. 302 INDEX. Valleys^ transverse and loDgitadinal^ 189. •— — their form proves a delage> 226. — — excavated by the dilavian waters^ 237. why excavated since the caves were in- habited by animals of extinct species, 238. correspondence of opposite sides proves denudation, 240. of Evenlode, Cherwell, and Thames dilu- vial, 252. some referable to other causes than de- nudation, 258. Vaults, artificial, in loam and breccia at Bauman's Hohle, 121. Veins, mud veins, or dykes, in fissures, 112. Verviers, caves in limestone near, ibid. Vilhoui, rhinoceros flesh preserved in ice, 45 and 46. Voltaire denied the possibility of a deludge, 225. W. Waal, cliff of Pnvium on its bank at Nymegen, 189. Wales, proofs of diluvial action it it, 206. Wallingford, quartzose pebbles on the plain and hilb adjacent to, 252. elephants* remains, 174. Walton, near Harwich, remains in diluvium, 173. — ^— bones preserved from decay by clay, 13. Warburton, H. Esq. visits Plymouth and Kirkdale, 52. Warwickshire, its gravel, 196. Water, its force competent to produce valleys, 286. — — — — effects on a small scale explain de- nudation, 204. ■ rats, probably eaten by hyaenas, 33. ■ in Mediterranean breccia, 34. ——**—— teeth abundant, 49. teeth and bones most abundant at Watson, Mr. his tooth of elephant from Balleye, 61. Weasel at Kirkdale, 18. — ^— teeth marks on bones at Oreston, 73 and 79. Weaver, Mr. his translation of Baron Schotheim, 167. — — — ^^— ^ opinion as to human bones, 170. ■ proofs of diluvial acti9n in the east of Ireland, 207. '■ opinion as to the diuvial origin of gorges, 214. Webb, Captain, bones brought by him from Hy- malaya, 222. Weissent River, bones on one side only, 102. flows by cave of Gailenreuth, 133. Wellow, sepulchral catacomb at, near Mendip, 1 65. Werner, probable origin of his theory of veins, 112. Westphalia, bones found there, 25. — — caves with bones, 112. — — — • will be described by Goldfuss and Sack, 104. Wexford, proofs of diluvial action in it, 207. Whale, entire skeleton in alluvium of Frith of Forth, 186. bones at Pentuan, in Cornwall, ibid. Whidby, Mr. his discovery of bones at Oreston, 67, ■ collected fifteen baskets of bones at Oreston, 71. ' " his account of cavities at Oreston, Kirkdale, 18. 80. Whin dyke, near Stockton-on-Tees, covered by diluvium, 192. Whitchurch, near Dorchester, Dorset, elephants* remains, 174. Whittlebury Forest, gravel and pebbles, 197- Wicklow, proofs of diluvial action in it, 207. Wirks worth, caves near it, 61. INDEX. 303 Wirtemberg, bones in gravel of Canstadt^ 25. Witchu ood Forest, quartzose pebbles^ 248. pebl>les on its highest pointy 253. Wokey Hole^ human remains, 165. Wolf at Kirkdale, 18. Wolf *8 toe^ made into a skewer at Paviland, 89. WoUaston, Dr. his analysis of album grsecum, 20. Wombwell, Mr. hysena in his collection biting off his own feet^ 28. Wool on fossil elephant of Siberia, 45. Wrangham> Archdeacon, his specimen of hyaenas jaw, 29. Wycombe pebbles from Warwickshire on the hills round, 252. Wytham Hill« pebbles from Warwickshire on its summit, 25 1 . Y. Yeovil, elephants* remains near, 174. Yorkshire, bones of elephant in diluvium, 173. — character of diluvium, 193. Yssel, diluvium between it and Rhine, 189. Z. Zahnloch (hole of teeth) its position and descrip- tion, 130. Zeboim, valley of, should be valley of hyaenas, 23. Zechstein, or magnesian limestone, near Kostritz, 167. Zelline, gravel produced by its torrent, 1 88. Zuyderzee excavated by a dyke bursting, 236. THE END. LONDON: PRINTED B7 THOMAS DAVISON, WRITEFRIARJI. » I 4 i I ^ I:' W.i i I i <(■ i I .I*J !': '•i -f^' \